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EPPP or bust > Biological Bases > Flashcards

Biological Bases Flashcards

1
Q

Neurotransmitter associated with Parkinson’s
How is it different in Parkinson’s?

A

Dopamine
Too low in basal ganglia

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2
Q

Diazepam/Valium medication class

A

Anxiolytic (Benzo)

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3
Q

Names of Tricyclics

A

Amitriptyline/Elavil
Imipramine (Tofranil)
Clomipramine (Anafranil)
nortriptyline (Pamelor and Aventyl)
desipramine (Norpramin)

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4
Q

Side effects of Tricyclics

A

Anticholinergic side effects
Cardiac/autonomic (e.g., orthostatic hypotension, drop in standing bp)
Neurobehavioral

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5
Q

Medications for Bipolar Disorder (Med class and names)

A

Lithium
Anticonvulsants - divalproex (Depakote), lamitrogine (Lamictal), carbamezepine (Tegretol), and topiramate (Topamax), valproate
Neurontin
Antipsychotics - Zyprexa, Abilify, Symbyax, risperidone

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6
Q

Anti-alcohol meds

A

Antabuse
Naltrexone

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7
Q

What is hemispatial neglect?
What part of the brain is affected?

A

One-sided neglect
Inability to attend to features in the environment contralateral to the damage
Usually damage to the right hemisphere

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8
Q

Ipsilateral

A

Same side

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9
Q

Anosognosia

A

Lack of awareness of symptoms/disorder

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10
Q

Agnosia

A

Unable to recognize a specific stimulus (object, shape, sound, smell)

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11
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

Difficulty recognizing faces

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12
Q

What are the effects of damage to parietal lobe?

A

Apraxia
Left-right confusion
Disturbance of body image

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13
Q

Parietal lobe functions

A

Pain
Pressure
Proprioception (to sense position, location, and movement of body)
Light touch
Heat
Somatosensory cortex

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14
Q

Frontal lobe functions

A

Personality
Abstract Thinking
Judgment
Inhibition
Planning/initative
EFs
Voluntary movement

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15
Q

What disorders are caused by low dopamine levels?

A

Parkinson’s
ADHD

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16
Q

What does Naltrexone treat?

A

Alcohol abuse

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17
Q

Lack of awareness of symptoms/disorder

A

Anosognosia

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18
Q

Unable to recognize a specific stimulus (object, shape, sound, smell)

A

Agnosia

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19
Q

Difficulty recognizing faces

A

Prosopagnosia

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20
Q

What lobe is implicated with apraxia, left-right confusion, disturbance of body image?

A

Parietal

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21
Q

Which lobe is associated with pain, pressure, proprioception?

A

Parietal

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22
Q

In which lobe is the somatosensory cortex?

A

Parietal

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23
Q

Which lobe is associated with personality?

A

Frontal

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24
Q

Which lobe is associated with the auditory cortex and the limbic system?

A

Temporal

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25
Q

Temporal lobe functions

A

Auditory cortex
Limbic system

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26
Q

Parts of the limbic system

A

Amygdala
Hippocampus

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27
Q

Symptoms of Parkinson’s

A

reduced voluntary movements
rigidity
tremor
bradykinesia
shuffing gait
neuropsychiatric symptoms
depression
dementia
akinesia

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28
Q

What is akinesia?

A

Difficulty initiating movement

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29
Q

What is bradykinesia?

A

Slowed initiation of movement

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30
Q

Symptoms of Huntington’s

A

Choreiform - jerking movements of pelvis, trunk, limbs

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31
Q

What is tardive dyskinesia?

A

Tongue thrusting
Face grimacing

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32
Q

Symptoms of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

A

Delirium - rapid changes in orientation and cognition

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33
Q

What causes Huntington’s?

A

autosomal-dominant gene

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34
Q

Normal sleep changes with aging

A

Decreased REM
Decreased slow-wave sleep
Decreased total sleep time
Need less sleep
Increased awakenings

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35
Q

What causes Korkasoff’s syndrome

A

chronic thiamin deficiency
longstanding alcohol abuse

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36
Q

Symptoms of Korkasoff’s syndrome

A

anterograde amnesia
retrograde amnesia
STM remains intact
Confabulations

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37
Q

Function of sympathetic nervous system

A

arousing body’s stress reaction

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38
Q

Function of parasympathetic nervous system

A

calms the body down after stress reaction

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39
Q

Function of somatic nervous system

A

Motor reactions

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40
Q

Function of autonomic nervous system

A

Automatic stress reactions
Includes SNS and PNS

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41
Q

Function of afferent neurons

A

Bring sensory info to brain

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42
Q

Function of efferent neurons

A

Send motor commands

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43
Q

Brain changes in schizophrenia

A

Loss of brain tissue
Enlarged lateral & third ventricles

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44
Q

Where is cerebrospinal fluid located?

A

Ventricles

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45
Q

Parts of the brain stem

A

Medulla
Pons
Midbrain

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46
Q

Functions of the medulla and pons

A

Homeostasis;
Most basic, automatic functions:
Respiration
Cardiovascular activity
Temperature regulation
Sleep
Consciousness

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47
Q

Function of the thyroid

A

Metabolism

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48
Q

Hormone associated with the thyroid

A

Thyroxin

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49
Q

Diseases associated with the adrenal cortex

A

Addison’s
Cushing’s

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50
Q

Functions of the basal ganglia

A

initiation and control of movement
neuropsychiatric symptoms/emotions
cognition
eye movement

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51
Q

What parts of the brain are implicated in Huntington’s?

A

Degeneration of Caudate Nucleus
Basal ganglia
Degeneration of acetylcholine in striatum

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52
Q

What parts of the brain are implicated in Parkinson’s

A

Cell loss in the substantia nigra
Basal ganglia

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53
Q

Language dominant hemisphere

A

Left hemisphere

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54
Q

Consequences of stress

A

Decreased immune function
Increased blood cholesterol

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55
Q

Neurotransmitters associated with cortisol

A

epinephrine
norepinephrine

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56
Q

Symptoms of postconcussion syndrome

A

Fatigue
Sleep problems
Headache
Dizziness
Irritability
Aggression
Anxiety
Depression
Labile Mood
Personality changes
Apathy

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57
Q

Symptoms of Frontal lobe syndromes

A

Perseveration
Disinhibition
Judgment problems

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58
Q

Functions of the hypothalamus

A

Homeostasis:
Temperature
Hunger
Thirst
Sex hormones
Circadian rhythm
Arousal

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59
Q

Which part of the brain is associated with circadian rhythm, release of sex hormones, and regulation of temperature?

A

Hypothalamus

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60
Q

Symptoms of Wernicke’s aphasia

A

Receptive language disorder
Comprehension disorder
Rambling and incoherent speech

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61
Q

What brain area is associated with Wernicke’s aphasia?

A

Damage to superior temporal gyrus

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62
Q

Symptoms of Broca’s aphasia

A

Slow, broken production of speech

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63
Q

What lobe is associated with Broca’s aphasia?

A

Damage to frontal lobe

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64
Q

Adoptive children’s IQ is more closely related to __________ than ____________

A

biological parent; adoptive parent

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65
Q

What brain structure is associated with circadian rhythm

A

Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Hypothalamus

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66
Q

Function of the pineal gland

A

Involved in sleep
Produces melatonin

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67
Q

Where is the reticular activating system located?

A

Brain stem

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68
Q

Functions of reticular activating system

A

filters incoming sensory info
mediates alertness
consciousness
pain
involved in circadian rhythm
regulating cardiovascular and respiratory systems

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69
Q

Where are the caudate nucleus and substantia nigra found?

A

Basal ganglia

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70
Q

Parts of central nervous system

A

Brain
Spinal cord

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71
Q

4 Parts of the spinal cord

A

Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral

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72
Q

Location of ventricles

A

two large lateral ventricles in each cerebral hemisphere
third ventricle - central
fourth ventricle - dorsal brain stem

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73
Q

Location of cortex

A

Outer, most visible layer of the brain

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74
Q

Cortex matter

A

Grey matter

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75
Q

Parts of the frontal lobe (answers listed from back to front)

A

primary motor cortex
premotor cortex
orbitofrontal cortex
prefrontal cortex

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76
Q

Functions of mirror neurons

A

Imitation
Empathy

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77
Q

What types of neurons are implicated in autism?

A

Mirror neurons

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78
Q

Disorders associated with dysfunction in PFC

A

ADHD
Schizophrenia

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79
Q

Where is Broca’s area?

A

Inferior lateral region of left frontal lobe

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80
Q

What is decussation?

A

Process by which incoming stimuli are transmitted to contralateral hemisphere for processing

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81
Q

The amygdala is involved in ________ sensory processing

A

Olfactory

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82
Q

Functions of the thalamus

A

Performs critical relay functions between the cortex and the brain stem
Attention
Perceptual processes

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83
Q

What part of the brain transmits signals between the brain stem and the cortical regions?

A

Thalamus

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84
Q

Parts of the basal ganglia

A

substantia nigra
caudate nucleus
putamen
globus pallidus
subthalamic nucleus

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85
Q

The _______ provides most of the inputs to the basal ganglia.

A

Cerebral cortex

86
Q

The primary outputs of the basal ganglia are sent to _________.

A

Thalamus

87
Q

Extrapyramidal syndromes involve

A

Coordination and rhythm of movement (bradykinesia, rigidity)

88
Q

Functions of cerebellum

A

regulation of movement (automatic and rhythmic)
coordination of the limbs
posture

89
Q

Disorder related to cerebellum

A

Multiple sclerosis

90
Q

Parts of neuron

A

Soma
Dendrites
Axon

91
Q

Function of myelin sheath

A

insulate axon, speed up transmission

92
Q

Biogenic amines (neurotransmitters)

A

acetyycholine
serotonin

93
Q

catecholamines (neurotransmitters)

A

Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine

94
Q

Amino acids (neurotransmitters)

A

GABA
Glutamate

95
Q

Functions of Norepinephrine

A

Primarily excitation; inhibition in some areas
regulates mood
memory
alertness
ability to feel pleasure
as hormone, fight or flight

96
Q

Disorders related to norepinephrine

A

Too high - anxiety
Too low - depression

97
Q

Where are the majority of dopamine neurons found?

A

Substantia nigra

98
Q

Overactivity of dopamine in frontal lobes is implicated in ______

A

Schizophrenia

99
Q

Functions of dopamine

A

Emotions
Movement
Endocrine functioning
Attention
Sociability
Motivation
Desire
Pleasure
Reward-driven learning

100
Q

Functions of serotonin

A

Primarily inhibitory
Regulation of mood
anger
aggression
Anxiety
Appetite
Learning
Sleep
Sexual functioning
level of consciousness
pain

101
Q

Disorders associated with serotonin

A

OCD
Depression
Anxiety

102
Q

Common locations of Acetylcholine

A

Parasympathetic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Primary neurotransmitter found at neuromuscular junctures (synapse between neuron and muscle cells)

103
Q

Function of acetylcholine

A

movement
activating reticular activating system
regulates alertness
attention
learning
memory

104
Q

Functions of GABA

A

major inhibitory neurotransmitter of CNS
emotion
balance
sleep patterns

105
Q

Disorders associated with GABA

A

Too low: Anxiety, agitation, epilepsy

106
Q

Functions of glutamate

A

primary excitatory neurotransmitter of CNS
basic building block of proteins
learning
memory

107
Q

Problems associated with glutamate

A

Excitotoxicity (excessive levels cause cell death due to excessive stimulation and excitation)
Cell death following TBI and stroke

108
Q

Agonist

A

Binds at receptor sites and mimics action of the neurotransmitter (boosting the system)

109
Q

Inverse agonist

A

Binds at receptor sites, but has the opposite effect (reducing efficacy of neurotransmitter system)

110
Q

Antagonist

A

Blocks or reverses the effects of agonists when agonists are present, but have no effect on their own

111
Q

Pharmacodynamics

A

biochemical and physiological effects of drugs

112
Q

Pharmacokinetics

A

how the body handles drug through absorption, metabolism, and elimination

113
Q

Therapeutic index

A

The ratio of the amount of drug that causes the desired benefit to the amount of the drug that produces dangerous side effects (desirable to have high index)

114
Q

Therapeutic window

A

range of a drug dose that can result in desired clinical efficacy without resulting in unsafe side effects

115
Q

Benzodiazepines drugs

A

alprazolam ( Xanax)
clonazepam (Klonapin)
diazepam, (Valium)
lorazepam (Ativan)

116
Q

Benzodiazepines treat

A

Anxiety
Seizures
Alcohol withdrawal

117
Q

Effects of benzos

A

sedative
anxiolytic
anti-convulsant

118
Q

Neurotransmitters effected by benzos

A

enhance release of GABA
block release of stress hormones

119
Q

Side effects of benzos

A

drowsiness
confusion
feelings of detachment
dizziness
imbalance
dependence
increase effect of depressants (e.g., alcohol)

120
Q

Barbiturates effects and side effects

A

previously used for sedation, now replaced by benzos
tolerance
physical dependence
severe withdrawal symptoms
enhance function of GABA

121
Q

Used in the treatment of Parkinson’s

A

L-Dopa (increases dopamine)

122
Q

Classes of antidepressants

A

MAOIs
Tricyclics
SSRIs
SNRIs
NDRIs

123
Q

What else do antidepressants treat?

A

Anxiety
ADHD
Eating disorders

124
Q

Neurotransmitters affected by tricyclics

A

Serotonin
Norepinephrine
(Reuptake blocked; more available)

125
Q

Neurotransmitters affected by MAOIs

A

Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Dopamine
(Blocks respective monoamine transporters, increasing levels in synaptic cleft)

126
Q

MAOI drugs

A

phenelzine (Nardil)
tranylcyromine (Parnate).

127
Q

MAOI side effects

A

serious drug-drug interactions
serious drug-food interactions
Most serious when taken with tyramine - hypertensive crisis

128
Q

SSRI drugs

A

fluoxetine (Prozac)
paroxetine (Paxil)
fluvoxamine (Luvox)
sertraline (Zoloft)
citalopram (Celexa)
escitalopram (Lexapro)

129
Q

SSRI side effects

A

gastrointestinal side effects
headache
sexual dysfunction
insomnia
psychomotor agitation
occasional extrapyramidal reactions.

130
Q

What class of medication is bupropion/Wellbutrin?

A

NDRI

131
Q

What class of medication is venlafxine/Effexor

A

SNRI

132
Q

What OTCs can help in treatment of depression?

A

St. John’s wort
S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe)
5-HTP
Omega-3 fatty acids
folic acid

133
Q

Neurotransmitters affected by first-gen antipsychotics

A

Dopamine

134
Q

Neurotransmitters affected by second gen antipsychotics

A

Dopamine
Serotonin

135
Q

First gen antipsychotic medications

A

haloperidol (Haldol)
thioridazine (Mellaril)
molinidine (Moban)
thiothixene (Navane)
fluphenazine (Prolixin)
trifluoperazine (Stelazine)
chlorpromazine (Thorazine)

136
Q

Side effects of first gen antipsychotics

A

extrapyramidal symptoms:
parkinsonism - bradykinesia, tremor, rigidity
acute dystonia - muscle spasms of tongue, face, neck, back
akathisia - restless movements, anxiety, agitation
tardive dyskinesia - results from prolonged use, may be irreversible - involuntary stereotyped movements of face, tongue, trunk, and extremities
neuroleptic malignant syndrome - life-threatening reaction - catatonia, stupor, fever, autonomic instability
Orthostatic hypotension
sexual dysfunction
Sedation
anticholinergic effects

137
Q

Define anticholinergic effects

A

dry mouth
constipation
difficulty with urination

138
Q

Atypical antipsychotics are _____ generation

A

second

139
Q

second generation antipsychotic medications

A

olanzapine (Zyprexa)
quetiapine (Seroquel)
ziprasidone (Geodon)
aripiprazole (Abilify)
paliperidone (Invega)
iloperidone (Fanapt)
asenapine (Saphris)
clozapine (Clozaril)
risperidone (Risperdal)

140
Q

Clozapine is one of the _____ effective atypical antipsychotic and the most _____ in terms of side effects.

A

more effective; most dangerous

141
Q

Define Fatal agranulocytosis
What medication is most likely to cause it?

A

dangerously low white blood cell count causing decreased ability to fight infection
clozapine

142
Q

Common disorders treated with risperidone

A

first line for new onset schizophrenia
agitation and aggression in dementia and bipolar
approved for minimizing self-harm in autism and disruptive behavior disorders of childhood/adolescence

143
Q

Common side effects of 2nd generation antipsychotics

A

milder extrapyramidal symptoms than first gen
dangerous metabolic effects:
weight gain
diabetes
dislipidemia

144
Q

Which neurotransmitters are affected by litihium?

A

norepinephrine
serotonin

145
Q

common side effects of lithium

A

nausea
diarrhea
vomiting
thirst
excessive urination
weight gain
hand tremor
reversible increase in white blood cell count frequently occurs

146
Q

lithium has a ______onset of action and a ______ therapeutic index

A

Slow; narrow

147
Q

Chronic use effects of lithium

A

hypothyroidism
goiter
rarely, kidney damage

148
Q

symptoms of Lithium toxicity

A

lethargy
ataxia
slurred speech
shock
delirium
coma
death

149
Q

Atypical antipsychotics used in treatment of bipolar disorder

A

Zyprexa
Abilify
Symbyax (for bipolar depression)

150
Q

What neurotransmitter is affected by anticonvulsants?

A

GABA (enhanced)

151
Q

Side effects of Lamictal

A

Stevens-Johnson syndrome (potentially fatal skin rash)

152
Q

Natural opiates

A

opium, morphine, and codeine

153
Q

Semisynthetic opiates

A

morphine, heroin, Percodan (oxycodone hydrochloride and aspirin) and Dilaudid (hydromorphone hydrochloride)

154
Q

Opiate withdrawal symptoms

A

diarrhea
vomiting
chills
fever
tearing and runny nose
tremor
abdominal cramps
pain

155
Q

Neurotransmitters affected by psychostimulants

A

norepinephrine
dopamine

156
Q

Two types of neuroimaging techniques

A

structural
functional

157
Q

Structural imaging techniques

A

CT
MRI
Neuroangiography
Wada

158
Q

Computerized Tomography (CT)

A

x-ray of brain from different angles to obtain detailed images of soft tissues, bone, liquid, and air

159
Q

On CT scans hyperdense tissue appears _____ and hypodense tissue appears _____

A

white; black

160
Q

_____ scan is often used in the ED to detect acute hemorrhage or skull fracture following trauma

A

CT

161
Q

CT scans are helpful for

A

detecting acute hemorrhage or skull fracture, neoplasms (tumors), mass effect (displaced tissue around growing mass), ventricular enlargement

162
Q

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can detect

A

small lesions (e.g., plaques of multiple sclerosis)
subtle tumor
chronic hemorrhage

163
Q

MRI images are

A

high-contrast, high-resolution images with good anatomical detail

164
Q

in comparing MRI to CT, ____ costs more and takes longer

A

MRI

165
Q

Neuroangiography is used for evaluating

A

vascular disease

166
Q

Wada is a type of ____ test

A

neuroangiography

167
Q

Wada is used to

A

localize language function, particularly for epilepsy patients undergoing brain resection

168
Q

Functional imaging tests

A

Electroencephalography (EEG)
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

169
Q

PET scans used for

A

mapping the distribution of neurotransmitters and identifying brain dysfunction due to stroke, epilepsy, tumor, dementia, and other brain-impairing conditions.

170
Q

EEG used for

A

detecting widespread abnormality in brain function in a variety of contexts (e.g., sleep, anesthesia, coma, traumatic brain injury, and epilepsy)

171
Q

the neurological basis for OCD and tourettes is found in

A

the basal ganglia

172
Q

What is a tonic-clonic seizure

A

seizure involving a tonic stage (continuous tension or contraction) then clonic stage (rapid involuntary alternate muscle contractions and relaxation)

173
Q

What type of seizures involve tonic clonic seizures

A

Grand mal

174
Q

What are petit mal seizures?

A

absence seizure, occur most frequently in chilldren, last 1 to 10 seconds, begin with brief changes in consciousness, then blinking or rolling eyes, blank stare, or mouth movements

175
Q

Partial seizures (e.g., Jacksonian seizure)

A

initially localized motor seizure that then expands to adjacent brain areas

176
Q

Complex partial seizures

A

frequently preceded by an aura, usually include purposeless behavior (aimless wandering), lip smacking, and unintelligble speech

177
Q

Wernicke’s encephalopathy

A

results from: long term alcohol use, thiamine deficiency; symptoms include eye problems, gait and balance problems, and drowsiness and confusion; most cases proceed into Karkasoff’s syndrome

178
Q

Side effects of beta blockers

A

sexual dysfunction, dizziness, drowsiness, shortness of breath, angina, cold hands and feet, difficulty sleeping, nightmares

179
Q

Propranolol med class

A

beta blocker

180
Q

What is L-Dopa/Levodopa?

A

amino acid used to treatment movement components of Parkinson’s by increasing dopamine; possible side effect is psychosis

181
Q

What class of medications associated with most dangerous withdrawal effects?

A

Benzos

182
Q

What substances are associated with most dangerous withdrawal symptoms

A

Alcohol

183
Q

Neuron firing all or nothing principle

A

Neurons either fire all the way or not at all, magnitude of firing is not dependent on the strength of the stimulus, provided the threshold is met

184
Q

Functions associated with acetylcholine

A

voluntary movement, learning, memory

185
Q

Functions of serotonin

A

mood, sleep, appetite, sex, aggression

186
Q

Function of norepinephrine

A

mood

187
Q

Function of GABA

A

anxiety, seizures

188
Q

Neurotransmitters involved in voluntary movement

A

acetylcholine, dopamine

189
Q

_______ refers to a disease of unknown origin

A

idiopathic

190
Q

_________ refers to illness or complications caused in the course of receiving medical treatment

A

Iatrogenic

191
Q

_______ is something that should be ineffective but which causes symptoms of ill health (i.e., an ill effect caused by the suggestion or belief that something is harmful)

A

nocebo

192
Q

Cortex is related to _____ level functions and subcortex is where we process _____ functions

A

higher
more primitive

193
Q

_______ relays information between the cortex and subcortex

A

thalamus

194
Q

According to the __________ theory of emotion, all emotions are essentially the same in terms of physiological arousal and people experience a particular emotion only after they experience physiological arousal and then assign a cognitive label to that arousal.

A

Schachter-Singer (1962)

195
Q

Damage to which of the following areas of the brain is responsible for the memory impairment associated with Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome?

A

thalamus and mammillary bodies

196
Q

_____ waves begin in stage 1 sleep and continue in stage 2, when they are interrupted by _____ and _____.

A

Theta
sleep spindles
K complexes

197
Q

The etiology of neurocognitive disorder due to Alzheimer’s disease has been linked to a low level of _____ and a high level of _____. (neurotransmitters)

A

acetylcholine
glutamate

198
Q

Negative emotions are processed primarily in the _____ hemisphere, and damage to this hemisphere can produce _____.

A

right
inappropriate indifference or euphoria

199
Q

Positive emotions are processed primarily in the _____ hemisphere, and damage to this hemisphere can produce _____.

A

left
depression or emotional volatility

200
Q

_____ emotions are primarily processed in the left hemisphere, and ____ emotions are primarily processed in the right hemisphere

A

Positive
negative

201
Q

Changes in synapses associated with the formation of long-term memories depend on the synthesis of ___.

A

RNA

202
Q

Hindbrain structures

A

Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum

203
Q

Medulla functions

A

involuntary mouth and throat movements (swallowing, coughing, sneezing)
regulates essential functions like respiration, heart rate, bp

204
Q

Pons functions

A

connects two halves of cerebellum
coordinate movements on two sides of body
relays messages between cerebellum and cerebral cortex
respiration
deep sleep, REM sleep

205
Q

Cerebellum functions

A

Voluntary movements
posture and balance
processing and storing implicit and procedural memories
attention
linguistic processing
visuospatial abilities

206
Q

Midbrain structures

A

Reticular formation
Substantia nigra

207
Q

Reticular formation functions

A

regulation of muscle tone
coordination of eye movements
control of pain
reticular activating system- mediates consciousness and arousal, sleep/wake cycle, alerts cerebral cortex to incoming sensory signals

208
Q

Substantia nigra functions

A

reward-seeking
drug addiction
motor control (with basal ganglia)

209
Q

Subcortical forebrain structures

A

Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Basal ganglia
limbic system

210
Q

Cones vs rods

A

Cones work best in bright light, more responsible for visual acuity and color
Rods are important for peripheral vision, vision in dim light

EPPP or bust (10 decks)

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