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MTAP 2 BABY > HPCT WEEK 1 > Flashcards

HPCT WEEK 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Covers a body surface or lines a body cavity
Forms most glands
Functions are:
Protection
Absorption, secretion, and ion
Filtration
Forms slippery surfaces

A

Epithelial Tissue

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2
Q

Most diverse and abundant tissue
Main classes are:
____ tissue proper
Blood-Fluid ____ tissue (blood)
Cartilage and Bone tissue - Supporting ____ tissues

A

Connective tissues

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3
Q

Components of connective tissue

A

Cells
Matrix (Protein fibers, Ground substances)

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4
Q

Common embryonic origin

A

Mesenchyme

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5
Q

Cells found in connective tissue proper

A

Fibroblasts, Macrophages, Lymphocytes, Adipocytes, Mast cells, Stem cells

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6
Q

Fibers:

A

Collagen - Very strong and abundant, long and, straight
Elastic - Branching fibers with a wavy appearance when relaxed
Reticular - Form a network of fibers that form a supportive frameworks in soft organs (i.e Spleen and Liver)

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7
Q

Ground susbtances:

A

Along with fibers, fills the extracellular space

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8
Q

The origin of a disease

Refers to why a disease arises

A

Etiology

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9
Q

Refers to the steps in the development of disease.

It describes how etiologic factors trigger cellular and molecular changes

Describes how a disease develops

A

Pathogenesis

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10
Q

Refers to the structural alterations in cells or tissue

Either Gross morphologic changes (Anatomic/Macroscopic)
or
Microscopic Changes

A

Morphologic changes

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11
Q

Referring to the clinical features (acute or malignant), course and prognosis of the disease

A

Functional derangements and Clinical Significance

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12
Q

Indication of a disease perceived BY THE PATIENT

A

Symptoms

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13
Q

Objective findings noticed BY THE DOCTOR on examination of the patient

A

Signs

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14
Q

Start of the disease

A

Onset

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15
Q

PREDICTION of the outcome of the disease

A

Prognosis

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16
Q

Outcome of the disease

A

Fate

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17
Q

New disease conditions that may occur during or after the usual course of the original disease

A

Complications

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18
Q

Undergoes replication all throughout life

A

Labile cells

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19
Q

Does not undergo replication unless injury

A

Stable cells

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20
Q

Does not undergo divisions following maturation

A

Permanent cells

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21
Q

Incomplete or defective development of tissue/organs
Affected organs shows no resemblance to normal mature form

A

Aplasia

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22
Q

Complete NON-APPEARANCE of organ

A

Agenesia

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23
Q

Failure of organ to form an opening

A

Atresia

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24
Q

Failure of organ to reach normal mature adult size

A

Hypoplasia

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25
Q

A state that lies intermediate between normal cell and injured cell

A

Cellular adaptation

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26
Q

Acquired decrease in tissue/organ size

A

Atrophy

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27
Q

The decrease in size happens as a consequence of maturation

A

Physiologic atrophy

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28
Q

Occurs if blood supply to an organ or tissue may directly injure the cell or may secondarily promote diminution of blood supply

A

Vascular Atrophy

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29
Q

Persistent PRESSURE on the organ or tissue may directly injure the cell or may secondarily promote diminution of blood suppliy

A

Pressure Atrophy

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30
Q

Due to lack of nutritional supply to sustain normal growth

A

Hunger atrophy

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31
Q

Due to lack of HORMONES needed to maintain normal size and structure

A

Endocrine Atrophy

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32
Q

Cardinal sign:pain

A

Dolor

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33
Q

Cardinal sign:Redness

A

Rubor

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34
Q

Cardinal sign:heat

A

Calor

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35
Q

Cardinal sign:swelling

A

Tumor

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36
Q

Cardinal sign: Destruction of functioning units of the cell

A

Function laesa

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37
Q

Watery, low protein fluid (Inflammation)

A

Serous inflammation

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38
Q

Fibrinogen is present in exudate (Inflammation)

A

Fibrinous inflammation

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39
Q

Pus / Purulent exudates (Inflammation)

A

Purulent / Suppurative inflammation

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40
Q

Blood and elements of exudates are present (Inflammation)

A

Hemorrhagic inflammation

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41
Q

Mucus is the main component (Inflammation)

A

Catarrhal Inflammation

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42
Q

Form of chronic inflammation characterized by collection of activated macrophages, T Lymphocytes, and sometimes associated with central necrosis

A

Granulomatous Inflammation

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43
Q

Pertains to the process of ensuring and maintaining personal as well as environmental health and safety in the laboratory

A

Risk management

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44
Q

Used to define the maximum allowable airborne concentration of a chemical

A

Permissible Exposure limits, Threshold Limit values, Occupational exposure Limits

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45
Q

Every Chemical should be labeled with

A

Chemical name and all ingredients (if mixture)
Manufacturer’s name and address or name of the person making the reagent
Date Purchased or made
Expiration date
Hazard warnings and safety procedures

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46
Q

Chemicals that cause reversible inflammatory effects

A

Irritants

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47
Q

Chemicals that cause destruction or irreversible alterations when exposed to living tissue

A

Corrosive chemicals

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48
Q

Cause allergic reactions in some exposed workers, not just in hypersensitive individuals

A

Sensitizers

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49
Q

Substances that can induce tumors, not only in experimental animals but also in humans

A

Carcinogens

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50
Q

Chemicals capable of causing death by ingestion, skin contact or inhalation at certain specified concentrations

A

Toxic materials

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51
Q

Intracellular changes associated with reversible injury (Plasma membrane)

A

Blebbing, Blunting, or distortion of microvilli, and loosening of intracellular attachments

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52
Q

Intracellular changes associated with reversible injury (Mitochondrial changes)

A

Swelling and the appearance of phospholipid-rich amorphous densities

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53
Q

Intracellular changes associated with reversible injury

A

Dilation of the endoplasmic reticulum with detachment of ribosomes and dissociation of polysomes

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54
Q

Intracellular changes associated with reversible injury (Nuclear alteration)

A

With clumping of chromatin (Pyknosis)

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55
Q

Intracellular changes associated with reversible injury (Myelin figure)

A

Phospholipid masses, derived from damage cellular membranes

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56
Q

Cell injury results from

A

Functional and biochemical abnormalities

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57
Q

Phospholipases increase will cause

A

membrane damage

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58
Q

Proteases increase will cause

A

break down of both membrane and cytoskeletal proteins

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59
Q

Endonucleases are responsible for

A

DNA and chromatin fragmentation

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60
Q

Mitochondrial damage

A

Decrease ATP, Increase ROS (reactive oxygen species)

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61
Q

Entry of Calcium

A

Increase mitochondrial permeability and will cause activation of multiple cellular enzymes

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62
Q

Membrane damage (Plasma membrane)

A

Loss of cellular components (cellular swelling)

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63
Q

Membrane damage (Lysosomal membrane)

A

Enzymatic digestion of cellular components (Necrotic to the cells)

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64
Q

Protein misfolding, DNA damage

A

Activation of pro-apoptotic proteins (apoptosis)

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65
Q

Cell size: Enlarge (Swelling)
Nucleus: Pyknosis > Karyorrhexis > Karyolysis
Plasma membrane: Disrupted
Cellular contents: Enzymatic digestion; may leak out of the cell
Adjacent inflammation: Frequent
Physiologic or pathologic role: Invariably pathologic

A

Necrosis

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66
Q

Cell size: Reduce (Shrinkage)
Nucleus: Fragmentation into nucleosome size fragments
Plasma membrane: Intact; altered structure
Cellular contents: Intact
Adjacent inflammation: No
Physiologic or pathologic role: Often physiologic. Means of eliminating unwanted cells, may be pathologic after some forms of cell injury, especially DNA and protein damage

A

Apoptosis

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67
Q

Types of cell death that is associated with loss of membrane integrity and leakage of cellular content

A

Necrosis

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68
Q

Individual organ removal

A

Virchow

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69
Q

Organ dissection in-situ

A

Rokitansky

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70
Q

En-masse dissection and organ separation

A

Letulle

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71
Q

Separate block dissection and organ separation

A

Ghon

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72
Q

Organ remove one by one from the cranial cavity down to the abdominal organs

For high-risk autopsies where permission is LIMITED TO ONE ORGAN

Good for DEMONSTRATING PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES in individual organs but the relationship between various organs may be hard to interpret

A

Virchow

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73
Q

En masse removal then subsequently dissected into organ blocks

Best technique for PRESERVING THE VASCULAR SUPPLY and relationships between organs, and for routine inspection because it is fast and the body can be made available to the undertaker

A

Letulle

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74
Q

Thoracic and cervical organs, abdominal organs, and the urogenital system are removed in functionally related blocks preserving ANATOMICAL RELATIONSHIPS

Simple to execute and appears as a compromise between Virchow and Letulle techniques

A

Gohn

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75
Q

In situ dissection (In local) combined with en bloc removal

A

Rokitansky

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76
Q

Computation for time of death

A

37c - Current body temp / 0.78 (C)
98.6F - Current body temp / 1.4 (F)

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77
Q

Rigor mortis occurs in ___ after death

A

2-3 hours
Starts in small muscle group (Head and Neck)

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78
Q

Fixed in 6-8 hours completed in 8-12 hours. Post mortem staining

A

Livor mortis

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79
Q

Takes out even more surrounding tissue.

Takes out some of the abnormality but not all

A

Incision biopsy

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80
Q

Removes the entire area in question

A

Excision biopsy

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81
Q

Simplest, least invasive test and uses the smallest needle to simply remove cells from the are of abnormality.

Not always adequate to obtain a diagnosis

A

FNAB

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82
Q

Considered as the primary technique for obtaining diagnostic full-thickness skin specimens

Use of circular blade that is rotated down through the epidermis and dermis, and into the subcutaneous fat, yielding a 3-4mm cylindrical core of tissue sample

A

Punch Biopsy

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83
Q

Removes not only cells, but also a small amount of the surrounding tissue

Provides additional information to assist in the examination of lesion

A

Core needle biopsy

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84
Q

Yield pleural fluid, directly aspirated from lungs

A

Thoracentesis / Chest tube thoracostomy

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85
Q

Samples are acquired though this procedure is received by hematology section or histopathology section

Similar to CSF collection

A

Bone marrow biopsy

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86
Q

Represent responses of cells to normal stimulation by hormones or endogenous chemical mediators.

A

Physiological Adaptation

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87
Q

Responses to stress that allow cells to modulate their structure and function

A

Pathologic adaptations

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88
Q

An increase in the size of cells resulting in increase in the size of the organ

No new cells are made

Occurs in tissues incapable of cell division

A

Hypertrophy

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89
Q

Enzyme substrate that colors viable myocardium magenta. Failure to stain is due to enzyme loss after cell death

A

Triphenyltetrazolium chloride

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90
Q

Takes place if the tissue contains cell populations capable of replication. It may occur concurrently with hypertrophy and often in response to the same stimuli

New cells are produced

A

Hyperplasia

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91
Q

Residual tissue grows after removal or loss of part of an organ

A

Compensatory hyperplasia

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92
Q

Shrinkage in the size of the cell by the loss of the cell substance

Decreased cell and organ size as a result of decreased nutrient supply or disuse

Associated with decreased synthesis and increased proteolytic breakdown of cellular organelles

A

Atrophy

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93
Q

Decreased workload
Loss of innervation
Inadequate Nutrition
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Aging

A

Causes of Atrophy

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94
Q

A reversible change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type

Response to chronic irritation that makes cells better able to withstand the stress

Usually induced by altered differentiation pathway of tissue stem cells

May result in reduced functions or increased propensity for malignant transformation

A

Metaplasia

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95
Q

Occurs in epithelium exposed to mechanical trauma or chronic irritation of prolonged inflammation

Prolonged Vitamin A deficiency

Most commonly leading to replacement of columnar cells by stratified squamous epithelium

A

Epithelial Metaplasia

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96
Q

Occurring in connective tissues whereby fibroblasts are transformed into more highly differentiated forms such as osteoblasts, fat cells or tissue macrophages

A

Mesenchymal metaplasia

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97
Q

Cells may accumulate abnormal amounts of various substances. It may be harmless or associated with varying degrees of injury

The substance may be located at:
Cytoplasm
Within organelles (Lysosomes)
In the nucleus,
May be synthesized by the affected cells or may be produced elsewhere

A

Intracellular accumulations

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98
Q

Mechanism / Pathways of abnormal intracellular Accumulations

A
  1. Abnormal metabolism - Inadequate removal of a normal substance secondary to defects
  2. Defect in protein folding, transport - Accumulation of an abnormal endogenous substance
  3. Failure to degrade a metabolite
  4. Deposition and accumulation of an abnormal exogenous substance
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99
Q

Refers to any abnormal accumulation of triglycerides within parenchymal cells

Mostly seen in the liver

AKA steatosis

A

Fatty Change

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100
Q

Causes of steatosis

A

Toxins, protein malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, obesity, anoxia

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101
Q

Common causes of fatty change in the liver

A

Alcohol abuse and diabetes

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102
Q

Alter mitochondrial and the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum function

Inhibits fatty acid oxidation

A

Hepatotoxins (Alcohol)

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103
Q

Decrease the synthesis of apoproteins

A

CCI4 and Protein Malnutrition

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104
Q

Inhibits fatty acid oxidation

A

Anoxia

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105
Q

Increases fatty acid mobilization

A

Starvation

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106
Q

Immunoglobulins that may occur in the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum of some plasma cells

Found in the peripheral areas of tumors

A

Eosinophilic Russel bodies

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107
Q

Is an eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion in liver cells that is highly characteristic of alcoholic liver disease

Damaged intermediate filaments within the hepatocytes

A

Mallory Body, or Alcoholic Hyalin

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108
Q

Are aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau protein that are most commonly known as primary marker of Alzheimer’s disease

Found in the brain in alzheimer disease aggregated protein inclusion

A

Neurofibrillary tangle

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109
Q

____ Accumulates in renal tubular epithelium, cardiac myocytes, and B cells of the islet of langerhans

A

Glycogen

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110
Q

Most common exogenous pigment

A ubiquitous air pollutant. When inhaled, it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages and transported through lymphatic channels to the regional tracheobronchial lymph nodes

Aggregates of the pigment blacken the draining lymph nodes and pulmonary parenchyma

A

Carbon

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111
Q

Heavy accumulations may induce emphysema or a fibroblastic reaction that can result in a serious lung disease called coal worker’s pneumoconiosis

A

Exogenous carbon

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112
Q

An endogenous, brown-black pigment that is synthesized by melanocytes located in the epidermis and acts as a screen against harmful ultraviolet radiation

Melanocytes are the only source

A

Melanin

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113
Q

A hemoglobin-derived granular pigment that is golden yellow to brown and accumulates in tissues when there is a local or systemic excess of iron

Identified by its staining reaction (blue color) with the prussian blue dye

A

Hemosiderin

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114
Q

Hemosiderin types
1. Accumulation is primarily within tissue macrophages and is NOT ASSOCIATED WITH TISSUE DAMAGE

A

Hemosiderosis

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115
Q

Hemosiderin types
2. Extensive accumulation within parenchymal cells, WHICH LEADS TO TISSUE DAMAGE, SCARRING, and ORGAN DYSFUNCTION

A

Hereditary Hemochromatosis

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116
Q

An insoluble brownish-yellow granular intracellular material that accumulates in a variety of tissues particularly the heart, liver, and brain as a function of age or atrophy

Represents complexes of lipid and protein that derive from the free radical-catalyzed peroxidation of polyunsaturated lipids of subcellular membranes

Not injurious to the cell but is a marker of a past free radical injury

Brown pigment when present in large amounts imparts an appearance to the tissue that is called brown atrophy

A

Lipofuscin or wear-and-tear pigment

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117
Q

Abnormal deposition of calcium salts, together with smaller amount of iron, magnesium, and other minerals.

A

Pathologic Calcification

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118
Q

When the deposition occurs in dead or dying tissues, it occurs in the absence of calcium metabolic derangements in calcium metabolism

(Normal serum level of calcium)

A

Dystrophic

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119
Q

Deposition of calcium salts in normal tissues

Always reflects some derangement in calcium metabolism
Increase calcium in serum (Hypercalcemia)

A

Metastatic

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120
Q

Encountered in areas of necrosis of any type

Virtually inevitable in the atheroma of advance atherosclerosis

A

Dystrophic calcification

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121
Q

Initiation in ______ sites occurs in membrane bound

A

Extracellular sites

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122
Q

Initiation of ______ calcification occurs in the mitochondria of dead or dying cells that have lost their ability to regulate intracellular calcium

A

Intracellular calcification

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123
Q

Definition: Deposits of calcium salts in dead and degenerated tissue

Calcium metabolism: Normal

Serum Calcium level: Normal

Reversibility: Irreversible

Causes: aging or damaged heart valves

A

Dystrophic

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124
Q

Definition: Deposits calcium salts in normal tissues

Calcium metabolism: Deranged

Serum Calcium level: Hypercalcemia

Reversibility: Reversible upon correction of metabolic disorders

Causes: Hypercalcemia

A

Metastatic

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125
Q

A protective response involving
host cells
blood vessels
proteins and other mediators

A

Inflammation

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126
Q

It’s main goal is to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, its protective mission by
diluting
Destroying
Neutralizing

A

Inflammation

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127
Q

Exogenous cases of inflammation

A

Physical agents -
a. Mechanic agents such as fractures, foreign, sand
b. Thermal agents: burns, Freezing

Chemical agents - Toxic gases, acids, bases

Biological agents - Bacteria, viruses, parasites

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128
Q

Endogenous cases of inflammation

A

Circulation disorders - Thrombosis, infarction, hemorrhage

Enzyme activation - acute pancreatitis

Metabolic products deposals - uric acid, urea

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129
Q

Changes in inflammation

A

Tissue damage
Cellular-vascular response
Metabolic changes
Tissue repairs

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130
Q

Onset: Fast
Cellular infiltrate: PMN (Mainly neutrophils)
Tissue injury, fibrosis - Mild and self-limited
Local and systemic signs - Prominent

A

Acute

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131
Q

Onset: Slow
Cellular Infiltrate: monocytes/macrophages and lymphocytes
Tissue injury, fibrosis: Often sever and progressive
Local and systemic signs: Less prominent, may be subtle

A

Chronic

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132
Q

An immediate and early response to an injurious agent

Short duration

A

Acute inflammation

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133
Q

Acute inflammation is characterized by

A

exudation of fluids and plasma proteins

Emigration of neutrophilic leukocytes to the site of injury

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134
Q

Cardinal signs of acute inflammation:
Due to dilation of small blood vessels within damage tissue (Cellulitis)

A

Rubor (Redness)

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135
Q

Cardinal signs of acute inflammation:
Results from increased blood flow (hyperemia ) due to regional vascular dilation

A

Calor (Heat)

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136
Q

Cardinal signs of acute inflammation:
Due to accumulation of fluid in the extravascular space

A

Tumor (Swelling)

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137
Q

Cardinal signs of acute inflammation:
Results from the stretching and destruction of tissues due to inflammatory edema

A

Dolor (Pain)

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138
Q

Cardinal signs of acute inflammation:
Inflamed area is inhibited by pain
Sever swelling may physically immobilize the tissue

A

Function laesa (Loss of function)

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139
Q

Chemicals of acute inflammation

A

Bradykinins
Prostaglandins
Serotonin

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140
Q

High protein content, High RBC, Pus present

A

Exudates

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141
Q

Low pus cells, Low protein content

A

Transudates

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142
Q

A peripheral position of white cells along the endothelial cells

A

Margination

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143
Q

Rows of leukocytes tumble slowly along the endothelium

A

Rolling

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144
Q

Endothelium can be lined by white cells. The binding of leukocytes with endothelial cells is facilitated by cell adhesion molecules

  • Selectins, immunoglobulins, integrins
A

Pavementing

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145
Q

The process of movement of leukocytes by extending pseudopodia through the vascular wall

A

Diapedesis

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146
Q

Unidirectional attraction of leukocytes from vascular channels towards the site of inflammation within the tissue space guided by chemical gradients

A

Chemotaxis

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147
Q

The important chemotactic factors of neutrophils are:

A

C5a - Complement system, bacteria, and mitochondrial products of arachidonic acid metabolism
Leukotriene B4
Cytokine (IL-8)

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148
Q

Process of engulfment and internalization by specialized cells of particulate material

A

Phagocytosis

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149
Q

Leukocyte molecule: Sialyl-Lewis X
modified proteins
Major role: Rolling

A

P-selectin

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150
Q

Leukocyte molecule: Sialyl-Lewis X
modified proteins
Major role: Rolling and adhesion

A

E-selectin

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151
Q

Leukocyte molecule: L-selectin
Major role: Rolling Neutrophils, monocytes)

A

GlyCam-1, CD34

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152
Q

Leukocyte molecule:C11/CD18, Integrins (LFA-1, Mac-1)
Major role: Firm adhesion, transmigration

A

ICAM-1 (immunoglobulin Family)

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153
Q

Leukocyte molecule: VLA-4 Integrin
Major role: Adhesion

A

VCAM-1 (Immunoglobulin family)

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154
Q

Leukocyte molecule: CD31 (homotypic interaction)
Major role: Transmigration of leukocytes through endothelium

A

CD31

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155
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Bone marrow suppression: Tumors (including leukemias, radiation, and chemotherapy)

A

Production of leukocytes

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156
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Diabetes, malignancy, sepsis, chronic dialysis

A

Adhesion and Chemotaxis

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157
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Anemia, sepsis, diabetes, malnutrition

A

Phagocytosis and microbicidal activity

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158
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency 1

A

Defective leukocyte adhesion because of oil mutations in Beta chain of CD11/CD18 integrins

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159
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Leukocyte adhesion deficiency 2

A

Defective leukocyte adhesion because of mutations in fucosyl transferase required for synthesis of sialylated oligosaccharide (receptor for selectins)

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160
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Chronic granulomatous disease

A

Decreased oxidative burst

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161
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
X-Linked

A

Phagocyte oxidase (membrane component)

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162
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Autosomal recessive

A

Phagocyte oxidase (cytoplasmic component)

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163
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Myeloperoxidase deficiency

A

Decreased microbial killing because of defective MPO-H202 system

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164
Q

What is the defect of the ff:
Chediak-lligashi syndrome

A

Decreased leukocyte functions because of mutations affective protein, involved in lysosomal membrane traffic

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165
Q

Steps of the inflammatory response (5Rs)

A
  1. Recognition of the injurious agent
  2. Recruitment of leukocytes
  3. Removal of the agent
  4. Regulation of the response
  5. Resolution (Repair)
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166
Q

Characterized by the outpouring of a watery, relatively protein-poor fluid that, depending on the site of injury

Fluid in a serous cavity is called an effusion

A

Serous inflammation

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167
Q

Resulting in greater vascular permeability allows large molecules to pass the endothelial barrier

A fibrinous exudate is characteristic of inflammation in the lining of body cavities such as the meninges, pericardium, and pleura

A

Fibrinous inflammation

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168
Q

Manifested by the presence of large amount of purulent exudate

Consisting of neutrophils, necrotic cells, and edema fluid (Staphylococci)

A

Suppurative inflammation

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169
Q

Focal collections of pus that may be caused by seeding of pyogenic organisms into a tissue

Secondary infections of necrotic foci

A

Abscesses

170
Q

A local defect, or excavation, of the surface of an organ or tissue that is produced by necrosis of cells and sloughing/shedding of inflammatory necrotic tissue

A

Ulcer

171
Q

Source: Mast cells, basophils, platelets

Actions: Vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, ENDOTHELIAL ACTIVATION

A

Histamine

172
Q

Source: Platelets

Actions: VASOCONSTRICTION

A

Serotonin

173
Q

Source: Mast cells, leukocytes

Actions: Vasodilation, PAIN, FEVER

A

Prostaglandins

174
Q

Source: Mast cells, Leukocytes

Actions: Increased vascular permeability, chemotaxis, leukocyte adhesion and activation

A

Leukotrienes

175
Q

Source: Leukocytes, mast cells

Actions: Vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, leukocyte adhesion, chemotaxis, DRGRANULATION, OXIDATIVE BURST

A

Platelet-activating factors

176
Q

Source: Leukocytes, mast cells

Actions: KILLING OF MICROBES, TISSUE DAMAGES

A

Reactive-activating factor

177
Q

Source: Endothelium, Macrophages

Actions: VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE RELXATION; killing of microbes

A

Nitric Acid

178
Q

Source: Macrophages, Endothelial cells, mast cells

Actions: Local: Endothelial activation
Systemic: Fever, metabolic abnormalities, hypotension

A

Cytokines (TNF, IL-1, IL-6)

179
Q

Source: Leukocytes, activated macrophages

Actions: Chemotaxis, Leukocyte activation

A

Chemokines

180
Q

Source: Plasma (produced in liver)

Actions: Increased vascular permeability, smooth muscle CONTRACTION, VASODILATION, Pain

A

Kinins

181
Q

Source: Plasma (Produced in liver)

Actions: Endothelial activation, leukocyte recruitment

A

Proteases activated during coagulation

182
Q

Inflammatory component:
Vasodilation

A

Mediators:
Prostaglandins
Nitric oxide
Histamine

183
Q

Inflammatory component:
Increased vascular permeability

A

Mediators:
Histamine and Serotonin
C3a and C5a (by liberating vasoactive amines from mast cells, other cells)
Bradykinin
Leukotrienes (C4,D4,E4)
PAF
Substance P

184
Q

Inflammatory component:
Chemotaxis, Leukocyte recruitment and activation

A

Mediators:
TNF, IL-1
Chemokines
C3a,C5a
Leukotriene B4
Bacterial products (N-formyl methyl peptides)

185
Q

Inflammatory component:
Fever

A

Mediators:
IL-1
TNF
Prostaglandins

186
Q

Inflammatory component:
Pain

A

Mediators:
Prostaglandins
Bradykinin

187
Q

Inflammatory component:
Tissue Damage

A

Mediators:
Lysosomal enzymes of leukocytes
Reactive oxygen species
Nitric oxide

188
Q

The dominant cells of chronic inflammation

A

Macrophages

189
Q

Macrophages in liver

A

Kupffer cells

190
Q

Macrophages in Spleen and lymph nodes

A

Sinus histiocytes

191
Q

Macrophages in CNS

A

Microglial cells

192
Q

Macrophages in lungs

A

Alveolar macrophages

193
Q

Develop from activated B lymphocytes, produce antibodies

A

Plasma Cells

194
Q

Characterized found in inflammatory sites around parasitic infections or as part of immune reactions mediated by IgE, typically associated with allergies

A

Eosinophils

195
Q

Distributed in connective tissues throughout the body, and they can participate in both acute and chronic inflammatory response

A

Mast cells

196
Q

This involves a diffuse accumulation of macrophages and lymphocytes at site of injury that is usually productive with new fibrous tissue formations

A

Nonspecific Chronic Inflammation

197
Q
  • Characterized by the presence of granuloma
  • Granuloma: is a microscopic aggregate of
    epithelioid cells
  • Epithelioid: cells is an activated macrophage, with a modified epithelial cell-like appearance. The epithelioid cells can fuse with each other & form multinucleated giant cells
A

Specific Inflammation

198
Q
  • Is a distinctive pattern of chronic inflammation characterized by aggregates of activated macrophages that assume an epithelioid appearance
  • A typical granuloma resulting
    from infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis showing central caseous necrosis,
    activated and epithelioid macrophages, many giant cells, and a peripheral accumulation of lymphocytes
A

Granulomatous Inflammation

199
Q

Irregularly scattered nuclei in presence of indigestible materials

A

Foreign body-types giants cells

200
Q

Nuclei are arranged peripherally in a horse-shoe pattern which is seen typically in tuberculosis, and sarcoidosis

A

Langhans Giant cells

201
Q

Granulomas are initiated by inter foreign

A

Foreign body granuloma

202
Q

Antigen presenting cells engulf a poorly soluble inciting agent

Macrophages inhibitory factor helps to localize activated macrophages and epithelioid cells

A

Immune granulomas

203
Q

Major cause of Granulomatous inflammation:
Tuberculosis, Leprosy, Syphilis, Cat scratch disease, Yersiniosis

A

Bacterial

204
Q

Major cause of Granulomatous inflammation:
Histoplasmosis, Cryptococcosis, Coccidioidomycosis, Blastomycosis

A

Fungal

205
Q

Major cause of Granulomatous inflammation:
Schistosomiasis

A

Helminthic

206
Q

Major cause of Granulomatous inflammation:
Leishmaniasis, Toxoplasmosis

A

Protozoal

207
Q

Major cause of Granulomatous inflammation:
Lymphogranuloma venerum

A

Chlamydia

208
Q

Mechanisms regulating cell populations

A

Cellular proliferation

209
Q

Cell numbers can be altered by

A

Increased or decreased rates of stem cell input

210
Q

Process in the proliferation of cells

A

DNA replication and Mitosis

211
Q

Continuously dividing tissues

A

Cells are continuously proliferating
Can easily regenerate after injury
Contains a pool of stem cells
E.G - Bone marrow, Skin, Epithelium

212
Q

Stable tissues

A

Cells have limited ability to proliferate
Limited ability to regenerate
Con proliferate if injured
E.G - Liver, Kidney, Pancreas

213
Q

Permanent tissue

A

Cells can’t proliferate
Can’t regenerate (Injured always lead to scar)
E.G - Neurons, Cardiac muscle

214
Q

Three phases in granulation-tissue

A
  1. Phase inflammation
  2. Phase of demolition
  3. Ingrowth of granulation tissue
215
Q

Inflammatory exudate, platelet aggregation, and fibrin deposition

A

Phase Inflammation

216
Q

The dead cells liberate their autolytic enzymes

There is an associated macrophage infiltration

A

Phase of demolition

217
Q

Proliferation of fibroblasts, and an ingrowth of new blood vessels, and an ingrowth of new blood vessels (angiogenesis) into the area of injury, with a variable number of inflammatory cells

A

Ingrowth of granulation tissue

218
Q

A mechanical reduction in the size of the defect

Contraction: results in much faster healing

If contraction is prevented, healing is slow and a large scar is formed

A

Wound contraction

219
Q

Have the capacity to stimulate cell division and proliferation (Promote cell survival)

A

Growth factors

220
Q

Sources of growth factors

A

Platelets, activate (TGF - Transforming growth factor)
Damaged epithelial cells (EGF - Epidermal growth factors)
Macrophages (Angiogenic factor)
Lymphocytes recruited to the area of injury

221
Q

Network that surrounds scells

A

Extracellular Matrix

222
Q

Provides mechanical supports to tissues

A

Collagens and elastin

223
Q

Defined as the process of preparing the tissue

A

Tissue processing

224
Q

Is the microscopic study of the normal tissues of the body

A

Histology

225
Q

Microscopic tissue affected by DISEASE

A

Histopathology

226
Q

Fresh tissue examination advantages

A

Protoplasmic activities
Mitosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis - (an active, energy consuming process where extracellular fluid and solutes are taken up into a cell via small vesicles)

227
Q

Methods of fresh tissue examination

A

Teasing or dissociation
Squash preparation (Crushing)
Smear preparation: Streaking, Spreading, Pull-apart, Touch preparation (Impression smear)
Frozen section

228
Q

A process whereby a selected tissue specimen is immersed in a watch glass containing ISOTONIC SALT SOLUTION (NSS OR RINGER’S SOLUTION)

Unstained by Phase contrast or Bright Field microscopy, or stained with differential dyes

A

Teasing or Dissociation

229
Q

A process whereby small pieces of tissue not more than 1mm in diameter are placed in a microscopic slide and forcible compressed with another slide or with a cover glass

A

Squash preparation (Crushing)

230
Q

More than 1 mm in diameter in squash preparation what will happen?

A

It will interfere with the objective of the microscope

231
Q

Cellular materials are spread lightly over a slide by means of a wire loop or applicator

Useful in CYTOLOGIC EXAMINATIONS

Used for CANCER DIAGNOSIS

A

Smear preparation

232
Q

Smear preparation methods

A

Streaking, Pull-apart, Touch preparation, and Spreading

233
Q

Used in rapid diagnosis of the tissue

Recommended for lipids and nervous tissue

10-15u in thickness

A

Frozen section

234
Q

A cold chamber kept at an atmospheric temp of -10 to -20C

A

Cryostat

235
Q

Utilized for RAPID pathologic diagnosis during surgery

Diagnostic and research enzyme histochemistry

Diagnostic and research demonstration of soluble such as lipids and carbs

Immunofluorescent and immunohistochemical staining

Some specialized silver stains, particularly in NEUROPATHOLOGY

A

Frozen Section

236
Q

Advantages: Used in IHC
Most Rapid of the commonly available freezing agents

Disadvantages: Soft tissue is liable to crack producing ice crystals or freeze artifacts
Causes a vapor phase

A

Liquid nitrogen

237
Q

Advantages: Excellent method for freezing muscle tissue

Disadvantages:

A

Isopentane cooled by liquid nitrogen

238
Q

Advantages: Adapting a conventional freezing microtome

Disadvantages:

A

Carbon dioxide gas

239
Q

Advantages: Adequate for freezing small pieces
Rapidly freezing Blocks of any type of tissue

Disadvantages:

A

Aerosol sprays

240
Q

Most common method of freezing

A

Liquid nitrogen

241
Q

Tissue blocks can be frozen by adapting a conventional freezing microtome gas supply of carbon dioxide gas from a CO2 cylinder, or by using a specially made piece of equipment known as cryostat

A

Cold knife procedure

242
Q

This method makes use of the cryostat, an apparatus used in fresh tissue microtomy

The cryostat consists of an insulated microtome housed in an electrically driven refrigerated chamber and maintained at temperatures near -20C, where microtome, knife, specimen, and atmosphere are kept at the same temp

A

Cryostat procedure

243
Q

Optimum working temp of cryostat is

A

-19 to -20C

244
Q

Most common

Pathologist diagnose the presence or absence of disease

Histotechnologist needs to produce a tissue section of good quality that allows for adequate interpretation of microscopic cellular changes

Solid tissue needs to be fixed and processed to preserve their structures

A

Conventional tissue processing

245
Q

Most critical step in tissue processing, depends on the type, ratio, concentration of the solution

A

Fixative

246
Q

Not all specimens are subjected to this

A

Decalcification

247
Q

Used of alcohol

A

Dehydration

248
Q

Dealcoholization step, commonly used is xylene

A

Clearing

249
Q

Steps in tissue processing

A

Fixation
Decalcification (Optional)
Dehydration
Clearing (Dealcoholization)
Infiltration or impregnation
Embedding
Trimming
Section-cutting
Staining
Mounting
Labelling

250
Q

Step that removes excess wax in preparation of section-cutting

A

Trimming

251
Q

The FIRST and MOST CRITICAL STEP IN HISTOTECHNOLOGY

A

Fixation

252
Q

Primary aim of fixation

A

To preserve the morphologic and chemical integrity of the cell in as like-like manner as possible

253
Q

Secondary goal of fixation

A

To harden and protect the tissue from the trauma of further handling

So that it is easier to cut during gross examination

254
Q

It prevents degeneration, decomposition, putrefaction, and distortion of tissues after removal from the body

A

Fixation

255
Q

How does fixation prevents breakdown of cellular elements

A

Fixation prevents autolysis by inactivating the lysosomal enzymes or by chemically altering, stabilizing, and making the tissue components insoluble

It also protects the tissue from further decomposition after death due to bacterial or fungal colonization

256
Q

How does fixation coagulate or precipitate protosplasmic substances?

A

Fixation renders insoluble certain tissue components that may otherwise leak out during subsequent histologic handling

257
Q

Chemical constituent of the fixative is taken in and becomes part of the tissue by FORMING cross-links or molecular complexes and giving stability to the protein

E.g - Formalin, mercury, Osmium, tetroxide

A

Additive fixation

258
Q

Fixative is not incorporated into the tissue, but ALTERS the tissue composition and stabilizes the tissue by REMOVING the bound water within the protein molecule

E.g - Alcoholic fixative

A

Non-additive fixation

259
Q

Effects of fixative

A

Preserve the morphologic and chemical integrity of the cell

Harden soft and friable tissues

Inhibits bacterial decomposition

Act as mordants or accentuators

260
Q

Osmolality
Slightly hypertonic solutions - ______
Isotonic solutions - _____

A

Slightly hypertonic - 400-450 mOsm (Shrinkage of tissue)
Isotonic - 340 mOsm

261
Q

Concentration:
Formaldehyde - ____
Glutaraldehyde - ____
___ is the ideal concentration in immuno Electro microscopy

A

Formaldehyde - 10%

Glutaraldehyde - 3%
0.25 % is the ideal concentration in immuno electro microscopy

262
Q

Duration of fixation

A

2-6 hours
Formalin can be washed after fixation for 24 hours

263
Q

Hydrogen Ion concentration in fixation

A

6 and 8 pH satisfactory

264
Q

Temperature in fixation

A

Room temp
Tissue processors - 40C
EM and Histochemistry - 0 to 4C
Formalin Heated to 60: Rapid fixation
Formalin at 100C - fix tissues with tuberculosis

265
Q

Thickness of section

A

1-2 mm2 for electron microscopy

2cm2 for light microscopy

Large solid tissue (Uterus) (Brain (suspended whole in 10% NBF for 2-3 weeks)

266
Q

Practical considerations of fixation
Prevent autolysis and putrefaction

A

Speed

267
Q

Practical considerations of fixation
Formalin diffuses at 1mm/hr (depends on the concentration of formalin) recommended is 10% NBF

A

Penetration

268
Q

Practical considerations of fixation
Amount of fixative - 20X the tissue volume = max effectiveness

10-25x (before)

A

Volume

269
Q

Practical considerations of fixation
Fibrous organs take longer to fix than biopsies or scrapings

Can be cut down using heat, vacuum, agitation, or microwave

A

Duration of fixation

270
Q

Characteristics of fixative

A

Cheap, stable, safe to handle
Must be isotonic
Inhibits bacterial decomposition
Must permit rapid and even penetration of tissues
Must make cellular components insoluble to hypotonic solutions

271
Q

One component fixative

A

Simple fixatives

272
Q

Compound fixatives

A

2 or more components

273
Q

Type of fixative according to action

A

Microanatomical fixative
Cytological fixatives
Histochemical fixatives

274
Q

Simple fixatives examples

A
  1. Aldehydes (Formaldehyde, Glutaraldehyde)
  2. Metallic Fixatives
    Mercuric chloride
    Chromate fixatives (Potassium dichromate, Chromic acid)
    Lead fixatives (Acetone, Alcohol, Picric acid, Acetic Acid, Osmium tetroxide (Osmic acid) )
  3. Heat
275
Q

Made up of two or more fixatives which have been added

A

Compound fixatives

276
Q

Fixatives according to action that permits general MICROSCOPIC STUDY of tissue structures

A

Microanatomical fixatives

277
Q

Fixatives according to action that preserve specific parts NUCLEAR or CYTOPLASMIC

A

Cytological fixative

278
Q

Fixatives according to action that preserve the CHEMICAL constituents of cells and tissues

A

Histochemical fixatives

279
Q

Microanatomical fixatives example

A

10% Formol Saline
10% Neutral buffer formalin
Heidenhein’s susa
Zenker’s solution
Zenker’s Formol (Helly’s solution)
Bouin’s solution
Brasil Solution

280
Q

Preserves NUCLEAR structure (Chromosomes).
Contain Glacial acetic acid
pH is 4.6 or less

A

Nuclear fixatives

281
Q

Nuclear fixatives example

A

Flemming’s fluid
Carnoy’s Fluid
Bouin’s Fluid
Newcomer’s Fluid
Heidenhain susa

282
Q

Preserver CYTOPLASMIC structure
No glacial acetic acid
pH is more than 4.6

A

Cytoplasmic fixatives

283
Q

Cytoplasmic fixatives example

A

Flemming’s fluid without acetic acid
Helly’s Fluid
Regaud’s Fluid (Muller’s fluid)
Orth’s Fluid

284
Q

Histochemical Fixatives example

A

Formol saline 10%
Absolute Ethyl Alcohol
Acetone
Newcomer’s Fluid

285
Q

Fixatives for satisfactory for routine paraffin sections
For electron microscopy
For Histochemical and enzyme studies

A

Aldehyde Fixatives

286
Q

Most widely used concentration for this fixative is 10%

A gas produced by the oxidation of METHYL ALCOHOL

Pure stock solution of this fixative is 40% which is unsatisfactory for routine fixation

Dilution is 1:10 or 1:20

usual fixation time of this fixative is 24 hours

Buffered to pH 7 with PHOSPHATE BUFFER

A

Formaldehyde

287
Q

Cheap, Readily available, easy to prepare, Relatively stable

Compatible with most stain

Preservers fats, glycogen, and mucin

Allows tissue enzymes to be studied because it does not precipitate proteins

Recommended for nervous tissue preservation

Allows natural tissue colors to be restored; recommended for colored tissue photography

Tolerant fixative used for mailing specimen

A

Advantages of formaldehyde

288
Q

Disadvantages of formaldehyde

A

May cause sinusitis, allergic rhinitis, excessive lacrimation or allergic dermatitis

May produce considerable shrinkage of tissues

A soft fixative and does not harden some cytoplasmic structures adequately enough for paraffin embedding

289
Q

Advantages of formalin

A

Cheap, Readily available, easy to prepare, Relatively stable

Compatible with most stain

Preservers fats, glycogen, and mucin

Allows tissue enzymes to be studied because it does not precipitate proteins

Recommended for nervous tissue preservation

Allows natural tissue colors to be restored; recommended for colored tissue photography

Tolerant fixative used for mailing specimen

290
Q

May cause sinusitis, allergic rhinitis, excessive lacrimation or allergic dermatitis

May produce considerable shrinkage of tissues

A soft fixative and does not harden some cytoplasmic structures adequately enough for paraffin embedding

A

Disadvantages of formalin

291
Q

Microanatomical fixative

Recommended for fixation of CNS and general postmortem tissues for histochemical explanation

Preserves enzymes and nucleoproteins

Demonstrates fats and mucin

A

10% Formol saline

292
Q

Recommended for preservation and storage of SURGICAL, POST-MORTEM, and RESEARCH specimen

Fixation time is 4-24 hours

Best fixative for tissues containing iron pigments and for elastic fibers

A

10% Neutral buffered formalin or Phosphate-buffer formalin

293
Q

Recommended for routine POST-MORTEM TISSUES

Fixation time of this fixative is 3-24 hours

Penetrates SMALL PIECES of TISSUES RAPIDLY

Excellent for many staining procedures including SILVER RETICULUM METHODS

A

Formol-Corrosive or Formol-Sublimate

294
Q

Fixation of this fixative is FASTER

for RAPID DIAGNOSIS because it FIXES AND DEHYDRATES at the same time

God for preservation of GLYCOGEN and for MICRO-INCINERATION technique

Used to fix SPUTUM since it COAGULATES mucus

Produces GROSS HARDENING of TISSUES

Causes partial LYSIS of RBCs

Preservation of iron-containing pigments is POOR

A

Alcoholic formalin or Gendre’s fixative

295
Q

Made up of 2 formaldehyde residues, linked by 3 carbon chains

For ROUTINE LIGHT MISCROCOPIC WORK

Buffered glutaraldehyde, followed by secondary fixation in osmium tetroxide is satisfactory for ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

Fixation time of this fixative is 1/2 hour to 2 hours

Preserves PLASMA PROTEINS

Produces LESS TISSUE SHRINKAGE

EXPENSIVE

LESS STABLE

Penetrates tissue SLOWLY

Tends to make tissue more BRITTLE

Reduces PAS (Periodic acid–Schiff) positivity of reactive mucin

A

Glutaraldehyde

296
Q

List of aldehyde fixatives

A

Formaldehyde (Formalin)
10% Formol Saline
10% NBF or Phosphate-buffered formalin
Formol- corrosive / Formol sublimate
Alcoholic formalin / Gendre’s Fixative
Glutaraldehyde

297
Q

Most common metallic fixative; used in 5-7%
Penetrates poorly and produces shrinkage of tissues
May form BLACK PRECIPITATES of MERCURY
Precipitates ALL PROTEIN
Recommended for RENAL TISSUES, FIBRIN, CONNECTIVE TISSUES, and MUSCLES
Rapidly HARDENS the OUTER LAYER of the TISSUE with incomplete fixation of the center

Trichrome staining is excellent. Permits brilliant metachromic staining of cells

A

Mercuric Chloride

298
Q

Mercuric chloride stock solution + GLACIAL ACETIC ACID
Recommended for fixing small pieces of LIVER, SPLEEN, CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS, and NUCLEI
Fixation time is 12 - 24 hours

RECOMMENDED FOR TRICHROME STAINING
Permits BRILLIANT STAINING of NUCLEAR and CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS
COMPATIBLE with MOST stains
May ACT as a MORDANT
PENETRATION is POOR

A

Zenker’s Fluid

299
Q

Fixation time of this fixative is 12-24 hours
EXCELLENT MICROANATOMIC FIXATIVE for PITUITARY GLAND, BONE MARROW, and BLOOD containing organs such as SPLEEN, and LIVER
PRESERVES CYTOPLASMIC GRANULES well

A

Zenker-Formol / Helly’s solution

300
Q

Recommended mainly for TUMOR BIOPSIES especially of the skin
Excellent CYTOLOGIC FIXATIVE
Fixation time : 3-12 hrs
Produces brilliant results with SHARP NUCLEAR and CYTOPLASMIC details
Permits EASIER sectioning of large blocks
of FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUES
RBC preservation is POOR
Some CYTOPLASMIC granules are DISSOLVED
Weigert’s method of staining elastic fibers is not possible in Susa-fixed tissues

A

Heidenhain’s Susa Solution

301
Q

commonly used for BONE MARROW BIOPSIES
Rapid fixation can be achiever in 1 1/2 - 2 hours

A

B-5 Fixative

302
Q

List of metallic fixatives

A

Mercuric Chloride
Zenker’s Fluid
Zenker-Formol or Helly’s Solution
Heidenhain’s Susa Solution
B-5 Fixative

303
Q

Use in 1-2% aqueous solution
Precipitates ALL PROTEINS and ADEQUATELY PRESERVES CARBOHYDRATES
A STRONG OXIDIZING AGENT
Not used because IT IS HAZARDOUS

A

Chromic Acid

304
Q

Used in 3% Aqueous solution
PRESERVES LIPIDS AND MITOCHONDRIA

A

Potassium Dichromate

305
Q

Fixation time of this fixative is 12-48 hours
HARDENS TISSUES BETTER and MORE RAPIDLY than Orth’s Fluid
Recommended for DEMONSTRATION OF CHROMATIN, MITOCHONDRIA, MITOTIC FIGURES, GOLGI BODIES, RBC, AND COLLOID-CONTAINING TISSUES
Must always be FRESHLY PREPARED
GLYCOGEN penetration is POOR
NUCLEAR STAINING is POOR
DOES NOT preserve FATS
Intensity of PAS reaction is REDUCED

A

Regaud’s Fluid/ Muller’s Fluid

306
Q

Fixation time is 36-72 hours
RECOMMENDED for STUDY of EARLY DEGENERATIVE PROCESSES AND TISSUE NECROSIS
Demonstrates RICKETTSIAE and OTHER BACTERIA
Preserves MYELIN better than BUFFERED FORMALIN

A

Orth’s Fluid

307
Q

Used in 4% aqueous solution of basic lead acetate
Recommended for ACID MUCOPLYSACCHARIDES
Fixes CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUCIN
Takes up CARBON DIOXIDE to FORM INSOLUBLE CARBONATE especially on PROLONGED STANDING

A

Lead Fixatives

308
Q

Normally used in strong saturated aqueous solution (1%)
Excellent Fixative for GLYCOGEN DEMONSTRATION
Also DYES the tissue. ALLOWS Brilliant staining with the TRICHROME method
Precipitates ALL proteins
STABLE
causes RBC HEMOLYSIS and REDUCES the amount of DEMONSTRABLE FERRIC IRON in TISSUES
Must NEVER be washed in water before dehydration
HIGHLY EXPLOSIVE when DRY
ALTERS AND DISSOLVES LIPIDS
SUITABLE for ANILINE Stains
Causes shrinkage of tissue (Slightly Hypertonic)

A

Picric Acid

309
Q

recommended for FIXATION of EMBRYOS and PITUITARY BIOPSIES
Excellent Fixative for preserving SOFT and DELICATE structures
Fixation time of this fixative is 6-24 hours
PRESERVES Glycogen
Does NOT need washing out

A

Bouin’s Solution

310
Q

BETTER and LESS MESSY than Bouin’s Solution
EXCELLENT FIXATIVE for GLYCOGEN

A

Brasil’s Alcoholic Picroformol Fixative

311
Q

Solidifies at 17C
FIXES and PRECIPITATES NUCLEOPROTEINS
Precipitates CHROMOSOMES and CHROMATIN materials
Causes tissue to SWELL (Hypotonic)

A

Glacial Acetic Acid

312
Q

List of Chromate fixatives

A

Chromic acid
Potassium Dichromate
Regaud’s Fluid or Muller’s Fluid
Orth’s Fluid
Lead Fixatives
Picric Acid
Bouin’s Solution
Brasil’s Alcoholic picroformol fixative
Glacial Acetic Acid

313
Q

Must be used in concentrations ranging from 70-100% because less concentrated solution will produce lysis of cells

A

Alcohol fixatives

314
Q

Used to fix and preserve GLYCOGEN PIGMENTS, BLOOD, TISSUE FILMS, and SMEARS
Ideal for SMALL TISSUE FRAGMENTS
Excellent for GLYCOGEN PRESERVATION
Preserves NUCLEAR STAINS

Lower concentrations will cause RBC HEMOLYSIS and INADEQUATELY preserve leukocytes
DISSOLVES fats and Lipids

A

Absolute alcohol

315
Q

Excellent for fixing DRY and WET smears, BLOOD SMEARS, and BONE MARROW TISSUES
FIXES and DEHYDRATES at the same time
Penetration is SLOW
Tissues may be OVERHARDENED and DIFFICULT to cut if left for more than 48 HOURS

A

Methyl Alcohol

316
Q

Used for fixing TOUCH PREPARATIONS

A

95% Isopropyl alcohol

317
Q

Used at 70-100% concentration
a SIMPLE FIXATIVE
Fixation time is 18-24 hours
Preserves but DOES NOT fix glycogen

A

Ethyl Alcohol

318
Q

Used to fix BRAIN TISSUES for the diagnosis of RABIES
Fixation time is 1-3 hours
Considered as the MOST RAPID FIXATIVE
Fixes and dehydrates at the SAME TIME
Preserves NISSL’s granules and Cytoplasmic granules WELL
Preserves NUCLEOPROTEINS and NUCLEIC acids
Excellent fixative for GLYCOGEN

A

Carnoy’s Fluid

319
Q

Histochemical fixative and nuclear fixative
Produces BETTER reaction in FEULGEN STAIN than Carnoy’s Fluid
Recommended for fixing MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES and NUCLEAR PROTEINS
Fixation time is 12-18 hours at 3c

A

Newcomer’s Fluid

320
Q

Used in ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Preserves CYTOPLASMIC STRUCTURES well such as GOLGI BODIES and MITOCHONDRIA
Produces BRILLIANT NUCLEAR STAINING with SAFRANIN
Adequately fixes materials for ULTRATHIN sectioning in EM
VERY EXPENSIVE
POOR penetrating agent, suitably ONLY for SMALL PIECES of tissues
INHIBITS hematoxylin and makes counterstaining DIFFICULT
EXTREMELY VOLATILE
Can IRRITATE the EYES producing conjunctivitis or may cause deposition of BLACK OSMIC OXIDE in the cornea leading to blindness
Stains Fat BLACK

A

Osmium Tetroxide

321
Q

Most common chrome-osmium acetic acid fixative
Fixation time is 24- 48 hours
Excellent fixative for NUCLEAR STRUCTURES
PERMANENTLY fixes FATS

A

Flemming’s Solution

322
Q

Made up of only chromatic acid and osmic acid
Recommended for cytoplasmic structures particularly the MITOCHONDRIA
Fixation time is 24-48 hours

A

Flemming’s solution w/o acetic acid

323
Q

Precipitates proteins
WEAK decalcifying agent
Softening effect on DENSE FIBROUS TISSUES facilitates preparation of such sections
POOR penetrating agent
Suitable only for SMALL PIECES OF TISSUES or BONES

A

Trichloroacetic acid

324
Q

Used at ice cold temperature ranging from -5c to 4c
Recommended for study of WATER DIFFUSIBLE ENZYMES especially PHOSPHATES and LIPASES
Used in fixing brain tissues for diagnosis of RABIES
Used as solvent for certain METALLIC SALTS to be used in FREEZE SUBSTITUTION techniques for tissue blocks
Evaporates RAPIDLY

A

Acetone

325
Q

Involves thermal coagulation of tissue protein for rapid diagnosis

A

HEAT FIXATION

326
Q

A process of placing an already fixed tissue in a second fixative

A

SECONDARY FIXATION

327
Q

Form of secondary fixation
2.5-3%K dichromate for 24 hrs to act as mordant for better staining and aid in cytologic preservation of tissues

A

Post-Chromatization

328
Q

The process of removing excess fixative from the tissue after fixation

A

Washing out

329
Q

Solution used for washing out Helly’s solution, Zenker’s Solution, Flemming’s solution, Formalin, Osmic acid

A

Tap Water

330
Q

Solution used for washing Picric’s acid (Bouin’s Solution)

A

50-70% Alcohol

331
Q

Solution used for washing out Mercuric fixation

A

Alcoholic Iodine

332
Q

Retarded by:
Size and thickness of the tissue specimen

A

Larger Tissue requires more fixatives and longer Fixed time

333
Q

Retarded by presence of mucus

A

Tissue that contain mucus are fixed slowly and poorly

334
Q

Retarded by presence of fat

A

Fatty Tissues should be cut in thin sections and fixed longer

335
Q

Retarded by: Presence of blood

A

Tissues containing blood, large amt of blood should be flushed out with saline before fixing

336
Q

Retarded by: Cold temp

A

Inactivates enzymes

337
Q

Enhanced by: Size and thickness of tissue

A

Smaller and thinner Tissues require less fixative and shorter fix times

338
Q

Enhanced by agitation

A

Fixation is accelerated when automatic or mechanical tissue processing is used

339
Q

Enhanced by moderate heat (35-56C)

A

Accelerates fixation but hastens autolytic changes and enzymes destruction

beyond 35-56 can damage or distortion to the tissues

340
Q

Known artefact produced under acid conditions
Reduced by fixation in phenol-formalin

A

Formalin Pigment

341
Q

Found in surgical spec (Liver biopsies)
Associated with an intense eosinophilic staining
Due to partial coagulation of protein by ethanol
Incomplete wax fixation

A

Crush artefact

342
Q

Fixative of choice and Fixative to avoid when your target to study is PROTEIN

A

Fixative of choice: NBF, Paraformaldehyde
Fixative to avoid: Osmium Tetroxide

343
Q

Fixative of choice and Fixative to avoid when your target to study is Enzymes

A

Fixative of choice: Frozen section
Fixative to avoid: Chemical Fixatives

344
Q

Fixative of choice and Fixative to avoid when your target to study is Lipids

A

Fixative of choice: Frozen section, Glutaraldehyde, Osmium tetroxide
Fixative to avoid: Alcoholic and NBF

345
Q

Fixative of choice and Fixative to avoid when your target to study is Nucleic acid

A

Fixative of choice: alcoholic fixatives
Fixative to avoid: Aldehydes

346
Q

Fixative of choice and Fixative to avoid when your target to study is Mucopolysaccharides

A

Fixative of choice: Frozen section
Fixative to avoid: Chemical

347
Q

Fixative of choice and Fixative to avoid when your target to study is Biogenic amines

A

Fixative of choice: Bouin’s solution and NBF

348
Q

Fixative of choice and Fixative to avoid when your target to study is Glycogen

A

Fixative of choice: Alcoholic fixatives
Fixative to avoid: Osmium tetroxide

349
Q

What are the cause/s for the ff difficulty:
Failure to arrest early autolysis of cells

A

Cause: Failure to fix immediately
Insufficient fixative

350
Q

What are the cause/s for the ff difficulty:
Removal of substances soluble in fixing agent
Loss or inactivation of enzyme needed for study

A

Cause: Wrong choice of fixative

351
Q

What are the cause/s for the ff difficulty:
Presence of artefact pigments on tissue sections

A

Cause: Incomplete washing of fixative

352
Q

What are the cause/s for the ff difficulty:
Tissues are soft and feather-like in consistency

A

Cause: Incomplete fixation

353
Q

What are the cause/s for the ff difficulty:
Tissue blocks are brittle and hard

A

Cause: Prolonged fixation

354
Q

What are the cause/s for the ff difficulty:
Shrinkage and swelling of cells and tissue structures

A

Cause: Over fixation

355
Q

Works as physical agent to increase the movement of molecules and accelerates fixation

Used to accelerate staining, decalcification, IHC, and Electron Microscopy

A

Microwave technique

356
Q

The process whereby calcium or lime salts are removed from tissues following fixation

It should be done AFTER fixation and BEFORE impregnation to ensure and facilitate the normal cutting of sections

A

Decalcification

357
Q

Different methods to remove calcium in the tissues

A

Acid
Chelating Agents
Ion exchange
Electrophoresis

358
Q

To form soluble calcium to remove the lime salts or calcium

A

Acid

359
Q

Binds the calcium ion

A

Chelating agents

360
Q

To ensure and facilitate the normal cutting of sections

To prevent obscuring the microanatomical detail of sections

Inadequate decalcification may result in poor cutting of hard tissues and damage to the knife edge during sectioning

A

Purpose of decalcification

361
Q

Three main types of decalcifying agents

A

Strong mineral acids
Weaker organic acids
Chelating agents

362
Q

Most widely used agents for routine decalcification because it is stable, easily available and relatively inexpensive
E.G - Chromic acid, Nitric acid, Hydrochloric acid, Formic acid, Trichloroacetic acid, Sulfurous acid, Citric acid

A

Acid decalcifying agents

363
Q

Acid decalcifying agent that produces minimum distortion of tissues and GOOD nuclear staining
Prolonged decalcification may lead to tissue distortion
Rapid in Action
Decalcification time is 12-24 hours
Seriously damage tissue stainability
Most COMMON and FASTEST decalcifying agent
Easily removed by 70% alcohol
Imparts YELLOW color which will impair staining reaction

A

10% Aqueous nitric acid solution

364
Q

An acid decalcifying agent that is recommended for URGEN BIOPSIES
Decalcification time is 1-3 days
Produces less tissue destruction than 10% aqueous nitric acid
Nuclear staining is RELATIVELY GOOD
The solution should be used inside the fume hood

A

Formol-Nitric acid

365
Q

Decalcification of this decalcifying agent is 2-7 days
Relative SLOW decalcifying agent for DENSE BONES
RECOMMENDED for routine purposes
Decalcifies and SOFTENS tissue at the same time
Nuclear and cytoplasmic staining is GOOD
MACERATION is AVOIDED due to the presence of chromic acid and alcohol
CANNOT be determined by chemical test

A

Perenyi’s Fluid

366
Q

Decalcification time is 12-24 hours
Most rapid decalcifying agent so far
POOR nuclear staining
Recommended for URGENT works
Prolong decalcification produces extreme tissue distortion
Complete decalcification CANNOT be determined by chemical means

A

Phologlucin-Nitric acid

367
Q

Greater distortion of tissues
Inferior to slower reaction
Nitric acid in its role as a decalcifying agent
produces GOOD nuclear staining
1% SOLUTION in 70% alcohol - recommend for surface decalcification of the tissue block

A

Hydrochloric acid

368
Q

Permits relatively good cytologic staining
DOES NOT require washing out before hydration
Moderately rapid decalcifying agent
Recommended for TEETH and SMALL PIECES OF BONE

A

Von Ebner’s Fluid

369
Q

SAFER to handle than nitric acid or Hydrochloric acid
Moderate acting decalcifying agent
Recommended for ROUTINE DECALCIFICATION OF POSTMORTEM RESEARCH TISSUE
SG is 1.20
Decalcification time is 2-7 days
May be used as FIXATIVE and DECALCIFYING AGENT
Relatively SLOW, NOT for urgent works
Recommended for TEETH and SMALL PIECES
Produced better nuclear staining
Permits EXCELLENT NUCLEAR and CYTOPLASMIC STAINING
requires NEUTRALIZATION with 5% sodium sulfate and WASHING OUT

A

Formic acid

370
Q

Decalcification time is 4-8 days
Very slow-acting, not recommended for urgent works
Suitable only for SMALL SPICULES of bones
Permits GOOD NUCLEAR STAINING
Weak decalcifying agent, NOT used for dense tissues

A

Trichloroacetic acid

371
Q

Decalcification time is 3-14 days
SLOW, NOT for ROUTINE purpose
Requires neutralization with 5% sodium sulfate
Permits better nuclear staining than NITRIC ACID METHOD
Recommended for AUTOPSY MATERIAL, BONE MARROW, CARTILAGE, and TISSUES studies for RESEARCH PURPOSES

A

Formic acid- Sodium citrate solution

372
Q

Very WEAK decalcifying agent
Suitable only for minute pieces of bone

A

Sulfurous acid

373
Q

May be used as a FIXATIVE and decalcifying agent like formic acid
Used to decalcify MINUTE BONE SPICULES
Nuclear staining with Hematoxylin is INHIBITED
Forms PRECIPITATE AT THE BOTTOM, which requires FREQUENT CHANGES of solution
Degree of decalcification cannot be measured by routine chemical test

A

Chromic Acid / Flemming’s fluid

374
Q

Decalcification time is 6 days
Too slow action for routine purposes
Permits EXCELLENT nuclear and cytoplasmic staining
Does NOT produce cell or Tissue distortion

A

Citric acid- Citrate buffer solution

375
Q

Chelating agent
Commercial name is Versene/Sequestrene
Very slow decalcifying agent
Permits excellent staining result
Combines with CLCIUM IONS and OTHER SLATS to form weakly dissociated complexes and facilitates removal of CALCIUM SALTS
for small specimen: 1-3 weeks
For Dense cortical bone it will take 6-8 weeks
An excellent bone decalcifier for IHC, Enzyme staining and EM
Inactivates ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE activity, which can be restored by adding MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE

A

Ethylene Diamine TETRAACETIC ACID (EDTA)

376
Q

Cellular detail is well-preserved
Daily washing of solution is eliminated
Permits EXCELLENT staining results
The degree of decalcification may be measured by physical or X-RAY method
AMMONIUM FORM of POLYSTYRENE RESIN that hastens decalcification by removing calcium ions from formic acid-containing decalcifying solutions

A

Ion exchange resin

377
Q

A layer of ion exchange resin 1/2 thick is spread over the bottom of the container and the specimen is placed on top of it. Then the decalcifying agent is added usually 20-30X the volume of the tissue. Cellular detail is well-preserved
Daily washing of solution is eliminated
Permits EXCELLENT staining reuslts
Tissue may stay for 1-14 days

A

Ion exchange resin

378
Q

A process whereby positively charged calcium ions are attracted to a negative electrode and subsequently removed from the decalcifying solution
Decalcification time is short due to the heat and electrolytic reaction
Same principle with chelating agent: This process utilizes electricity and is dependent upon a supply of direct current to remove the calcium deposits
This method is satisfactory for SMALL BONE fragments, processing only a LIMITED number of specimens at a time
GOOD cytologic and histologic details are NOT always preserved

A

Electrophoresis

379
Q

Factors influencing rate of decalcification:
High ____ and greater amount of fluid will increase the speed of the process

A

Concentration

380
Q

Factors influencing rate of decalcification:
37C impaired nuclear staining of Van Gieson’s stain for collagen fibers
55C tissue will undergo complete digestion within 24-48 hrs
Room temp range of 18-30C

A

Temperature

381
Q

Factors influencing rate of decalcification:
Increase in size and consistency of tissue requires longer period
Ratio 20:1

A

Volume

382
Q

Factors influencing rate of decalcification:
24-48 hours is the ideal time for decalcification
Dense bone tissue - 14 days longer

A

Time

383
Q

Measuring the extend of decalcification:
Done by touching with fingers to determine the consistency of tissue
Bending, needling or by use of scalpel. If it bends easily that means decalcification is complete
Pricking CAUSES DAMAGE and DISTORT of tissue
INACCURATE way

A

Physical or mechanical test

384
Q

Measuring the extend of decalcification:
Best method (most ideal, most sensitive, and most reliable) for determining complete decalcification
NOT recommended on tissue fixed in mercuric chloride (Radio opacity)

A

X-ray or Radiological method

385
Q

Measuring the extend of decalcification:
Simple, Reliable and convenient method for routine purposes
Calcium oxalate test
Detects calcium in the decalcifying solution by precipitation of insoluble calcium hydroxide or calcium oxalates

A

Chemical Method (Calcium oxalate test)

386
Q

The removal of acid from tissue or neutralized chemically by immersing the specimen either saturated with lithium carbonate solution or 5-10% aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution for several hours
or
Simply rinse the decalcified specimens with running tap water

Acid decalcified tissue for frozen sections- washed in water or stored in formol saline containing 15% sucrose or Phosphate buffered saline with 15-20% sucrose at 4c before freezing

Tissue decalcification in EDTA - Wash with water or stored overnight in formol saline or Phosphate buffered saline (Prevents the formation of crystalline precipitate)

A

Post Decalcification

387
Q

Tissue softeners:
May act both as a decalcifying agent and tissue softener
Most commonly used tissue softeners

A

Perenyi’s Fluid

388
Q

How to soften unduly hard tissues?

A

Selected portions are left in the fluid for 12-24 hours and dehydrated in the same manner
or
Submerge the cut surface of the block in the fluid for 1-2 hours before sectioning to facilitate easier cutting of tissue

389
Q

Washing out and immersion of fixed tissues + 4% Aqueous phenol solution for 1-3 days
Considerable tissue softening
Easier block sectioning without producing marked delirious effects and tissue distortion

A

Softening of tissue

390
Q

Process of removing intercellular and extracellular water from the tissue following fixation and prior to wax impregnation

A

Dehydration

391
Q

For routine dehydration of tissues
Best dehydrating agent - fast acting
Not poisonous
Not expensive

A

Ethyl Alcohol

392
Q

Toxic dehydrating agent
Primarily employed for blood and tissue films and for smear preparation

A

Methyl Alcohol

393
Q

This dehydrating agent is utilized in PLANT and ANIMAL microtechnique
Slow dehydrating agent
Producing less shrinkage and hardening than ethyl alcohol
Recommend for tissue which do not require rapid processing

A

Butyl Alcohol

394
Q

Factors to considered in Dehydration

A

Size and nature of tissue - 30%
Types of Fixative used
Temperature - 37C will hasten dehydration time
Ratio - not be less than 10X

395
Q

Effects of alcohol concentration

A

85-95% - Liable to produce considerable shrinkage and hardening of tissues leading to distortion
Above 80% - make tissues hard brittle and difficult to cut
95% or absolute alcohol - tends to harden only the surface of the tissue while the deeper parts are not completely penetrated
Low concentration (Below 70%) - Macerate the tissue and can cause cell lysis

396
Q

Routine dehydration process

A

70% alcohol - 6 hours
95% alcohol - 12 hours
100% alcohol - 2 hours
100% alcohol - 1 hour
100% alcohol - 1hour

397
Q

Dehydration of tissue NOT more than 4mm thick

A

70% Ethanol -15 min
90% ethanol - 15 mins
100% Ethanol - 15 mins
100% ethanol - 15 mins
100% ethanol - 30 mins
100% Ethanol -45 mins

398
Q

A cheap, rapid acting dehydrating agent
Dehydrates in 1/2 to 2 hours
More miscible with epoxy resins than alcohol
20:1 ratio (Fixative)
Clear, Colorless highly flammable and extremely volatile fluid
Rapid in action but penetrates tissues poorly and causes brittleness in tissues that are prolonged dehydrated
Most lipids are removed
Produces considerable tissue shrinkage
NOT RECOMMENDED for routine dehydration purposes

A

Acetone

399
Q

Excellent dehydrating and CLEARING agent
Produces less tissue shrinkage
Tissues can be left for long periods of time w/o affecting the consistency or staining properties of the specimen
Tissue sections dehydration with this dehydrating agent tends to ribbon POORLY
EXPENSIVE and extremely dangerous (Vapor is toxic)
Formed peroxide may EXPLODE upon air exposure

A

Dioxane (Diethyl Dioxide)

400
Q

1st - Pure dioxane solution - 1 hour
2nd - Pure dioxane solution - 1 hour
3rd - Pure dioxane solution - 2 hours
Then proceed to impregnation agad
1st Paraffin wax - 15 mins
2nd Paraffin wax - 45 mins
3rd Paraffin wax - 2 hours
Embed in mold and in cool
Uses pure dioxane and paraffin

A

Graupner’s method

401
Q

Tissue is wrapped in gauze bag suspended in dioxane solution and a little anhydrous calcium oxide / Quicklime
Dehydration time - 3-24 hours
Tissue fixed in chromate fixative must be washed in running water

A

Weiseberger’s method

402
Q

Dehydrates rapidly
The tissue may be transferred from water or normal saline directly to cellosolve and stored in it for months w/o producing hardening or distortion

Caution: Ethylene glycol ether is combustible at 110F to 120F and is toxic

Propylene based glycol ether should be used instead

A

Cellosive (Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether)

403
Q

Removes water
Produces very little distortion and hardening of tissues
Soluble in alcohol, water, ether, benzene, chloroform acetone, and xylene
Used to dehydrate SECTIONS AND SMEARS

A

Triethyl Phosphate

404
Q

BOTH DEHYDRATES and CLEARS tissues since it is miscible in water and paraffin
Can be used for demixing, clearing, and dehydration paraffin sections before and after staining
Causes less shrinkage and EASIER cutting of sections with FEWER artefacts
Does NOT dissolve aniline dyes
TOXIC if INGESTED or INHALED
Vapors causes nausea, dizziness, headache, and anesthesia

A

Tetrahydrofuran

405
Q

Added to each 95T ethanol bats as part of dehydration process
Acts as a softener for hard tissues

A

4% Phenol

406
Q

A glycerol and alcohol mixture
Tissue softener

A

Molliflex

407
Q

Dehydrating agent for Electron microscopy
Accompanied by PROPYLENE OXIDE as a transition fluid
Along with propylene oxide, this solvent have some undesirable propery

A

Ethanol

408
Q

A good substitute for propylene
Non-carcinogenic, less toxic, and not as flammable as propylene oxide
Excellent dehydrating agent

A

Acetonitrile

409
Q

The transition step between dehydration and infiltration with the embedding medium

A

Clearing

410
Q

Process whereby alcohol is removed from the tissue and replaced with a substance that will dissolve the wax with which the tissue is impregnated or the medium on which the tissue is to be mounted

A

De-alcoholization

411
Q

Characteristic of a good clearing agent

A

Miscible with alcohol to promote rapid removal for the dehydrating agent

Should be miscible with and easily removed by melted paraffin wax

Should not produce excessive shrinkage, hardening or damage of tissue

Should not dissolve out aniline dyes

Should not evaporate quickly in a water bat

Should make tissue TRANSPARENT

412
Q

Colorless clearing agent that is MOST COMMONLY used ⭐

Most rapid clearing agent, suitable for urgent biopsies

Clearing time is 1/2 hour to 1 hour

Makes tissue transparent

Does not extract aniline dye

Can be used for Celloidin sections because it does NOT dissolve celloidin

NOT suitable for nervous tissue and lymph nodes

CHEAP

A

Xylene

413
Q

May be used as a SUBSTITUTE OR ALTERNATIVE ONLY for xylene or benzene ⭐

Clearing time is 1 - 2 hours

Acts fairly rapidly and is recommended for routine purpose

Tissues do not become excessively hard and brittle even if left for 24 hours

NOT carcinogenic

SLOWER than xylene and benzene
EXPENSIVE

A

Toluene

414
Q

Preferred as a clearing agent in the embedding process of tissues because it penetrates and clears tissues rapidly

Clearing time is 15 to 60 minutes

Does not make tissues hard and brittle but it causes MINIMUM SHRINKAGE

Makes tissues transparent

FLAMMABLE

TISSHUE SHRINKAGE may be OBSERVED if left for a long time

Excessive exposure is TOXIC and CARCINOGENIC to human

May damage the bone marrow resulting in APLASTIC ANEMIA ⭐

A

Benzene

415
Q

Slower in action than xylene but causes less brittleness

Suitable for LARGE TISSUE SPECIMENS. Thicker blocks can be processed

Clearing time 6-24 hours

Recommended for NERVOUS TISSUES, LYMPH NODES, and EMBRYOS ⭐

NOT FLAMMABLE

Relatively toxic to the LIVER after prolonged inhalataion

Wax impregnation after this clearing agent is relatively slow

DOES NOT make tissue transparent

Difficult to REMOVE from paraffin section because it is NOT very volatile

Complete clearing is difficult to evaluate

A

Chloroform

416
Q

Advantages and Disadvantages are the same with chloroform ⭐

Produces CONSIDERABLE tissue HARDENING and DANGEROUS to inhale on prolonged exposure due to its highly toxic effects

A

Carbon tetrachloride

417
Q

Used to clear both PARAFFIN and CELLOIDIN sections during embedding process

Recommended for CNS tissues, and Cytological studies
CCC = _____ , CNS, Cytological

Very penetrating agent

Becomes MILKY upon prolonged storage and should be filtered before use ⭐

VERY EXPENSIVE

Extremely slow clearing agent, not for routine purposes

Clearing time is 2-3 days
Celloidin clearing is 5-6 days

A

Cedarwood oil

418
Q

Not normally utilized as a clearing agent

Recommended for clearing embryos, INSECTS, and VERY DELICATE SPECIMENS due to its ability to clear 70% ALCOHOL without excessive tissue shrinkage and hardening ⭐

A

Aniline oil

419
Q

Causes MINIMUM shrinkage of tissues

Its quality is not guaranteed due to its tendency to become ADULTERATED ⭐

Wax impregnation after clearing with this clearing agent is SLOW and DIFFICULT

Tissues become BRITTLE, aniline dyes are REMOVED and celloidin is DISSOLVED

EXPENSIVE and UNSUITABLE for routine clearing purposes

A

Clove oil

420
Q

Slow-acting clearing agents that can be used when DOUBLE EMBEDDING techniques are required ⭐

OIL OF WINTERGREEN

A

Methyl benzoate and Methyl Salicylate

421
Q

For frozen section

No de-alcoholization is involved in this process

A

Glycerin and gum syrup

422
Q
A

MTAP 2 BABY (5 decks)

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