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Physiology 1020 > Homeostasis and the Cell + nervous system > Flashcards

Homeostasis and the Cell + nervous system Flashcards

1
Q

define physiology

A

study of how systems function in living organisms
-controls internal environment

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2
Q

define homeostasis

A

maintaining relatively stable conditions within internal environment
-dynamic process

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3
Q

variables of homeostasis

A

body temp
blood glucose levels
blood pH
o2 + co2 levels
blood pressure
electrolyte balance
h2o balance

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4
Q

define internal environments

A

occurs within something

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5
Q

define external environments

A

outside of something
harder to predict and control

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6
Q

negative feedback loop

A

the effect of a reaction loops back to shut it off

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7
Q

define control centre

A

combines info from sensors and compares it to set point
makes plan to restore homeostasis
sends to effectors

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8
Q

define effectors

A

organs and systems respond to plane from control centre
changes the variable

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9
Q

define regulated variable

A

internal condition being regulated with negative feedback

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10
Q

define sensor

A

detection systems
sends info to control centre

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11
Q

define positive feedback loop and example

A

makes change worst
-birth> baby push on cervix then tells brain to secrete a hormone to contract harder

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12
Q

organizational hierarchy of the body

A

atoms, marcomolecules, organelles, cells/tissues/organs, organ systems, organism

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13
Q

define intracellular

A

inside cell

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14
Q

define extracellular

A

outside cell

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15
Q

characteristics of intracellular fluid

A

fluid in cell
67% of all body fluid
high [] of K and proteins compared to extracellular

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16
Q

characteristics of blood plasma fluid

A

moves all other parts of blood
yellow, 6.6% of fluid in body
is (2% h2o, 8% other
colloidal suspension

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17
Q

define colloidal suspension for blood plasma

A

proteins remain in suspension (doesn’t dissolve) in plasma

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18
Q

characteristics of interstital fluid

A

nutrients + gases move from capillary > interstital fluid
26.4% of fluid in body
high Na, Cl, Ca++ then in cell

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19
Q

salty bananas

A

3 Na, 2K
Na and Cl high outside []
K high inside cell
needs ATP- primary active transport

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20
Q

cell membrane’s role

A

keeps intracellular and interstitial separated

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21
Q

proteins role and example

A

builds proteins (DNA polymerases)
structure (actin)
messenger (neurotransmitters and hormones)

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22
Q

functions of membrane proteins

A

cell identity marker
cell surface receptor
ion channel
transporters
enzymes
cell-cell adhesion proteins

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23
Q

cell identity marker

A

acts as ID tab so cell can distinguish itself
immune response and tissues formation
made up of proteins + carbs

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24
Q

cell surface receptor

A

gets extracellular signal + transmits intracellular messages
ex. neurotransmitters + hormones

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25
Q

ion channel

A

allows specific ions to move across the membrane along ions [] gradient
K Na channels

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26
Q

transporters and types

A

moves molecules
facilitated diffusion
active transport
secondary active transport

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27
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

allows passive solutes to move along [] gradient
cross the membrane
-needs help from transport proteins

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28
Q

active transport

A

moves molecules against [] gradient with ATP
NA/K pump

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29
Q

secondary active transport

A

uses ion gradient to move molecules
-uses ATP from primary active transport

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30
Q

enzymes

A

a catalyst that causes processes (signals, transport, breakdown)

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31
Q

cell-cell adhesion protein

A

mediates cell-cell interaction + maintains tissues integrity and organization

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32
Q

5 ways for substance to cross membrane

A

simple diffusion
facilitated diffusion
pumps
endocytosis
exocytosis

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33
Q

simple diffusion

A

^ [] to low []
only occurs with small nonpolar molecules

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34
Q

pumps

A

against [] gradient (low [] to high)
need NRG

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35
Q

endocytosis

A

too big molecules need the membrane to engulf it
-the membrane then is fully around the molecules and detaches to become a vesicle

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36
Q

exocytosis

A

too big molecule to leave so packages in vesicle, vesicles binds to membrane than releases molecule in interstitial fluid

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37
Q

osmosis

A

h20 moves across semipermeable membrane down [] gradient
uses channels across membrane called aquaporins

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38
Q

solvent

A

liquid that something will be dissolved in

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39
Q

solute

A

gets dissolved

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40
Q

solution

A

product of solvent and solute

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41
Q

factors that affect h2o movement across membrane

A

permeability of membrane
[] of solute
pressure gradient in cells

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42
Q

units of osmosis

A

osmotically active particles called osmoles

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43
Q

osmolality calculations

A

=# of osmoles/kg of h2o
=# of osmoles/L of h2o

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44
Q

osmotic pressure

A

force required to stop movement of h2o

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45
Q

tonicity

A

ability of a solution to cause the movement of h20 in or out of a cell

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46
Q

hypertonic

A

high [] solutes outside cell
h2o moves out and shrinks
-reduces swelling

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47
Q

hypotonic

A

low [] solute outside cell
h2o moves in and grows
-rehydrates cells

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48
Q

isotonic

A

= [] in and out of cell
no net movement
300 mOsm

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49
Q

extracellular fluid osmolarity

A

-290 mOsM

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50
Q

factors affecting rate of diffusion in cell membrane

A

[ ] gradient
electrical gradient
lipid solubility
molecular size
membrane size
composition of lipid layer

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51
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

the electrical charge difference across the cell membrane when cell is at rest
-70 mV

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52
Q

electrical charge difference for cells

A

inside cells is more negative than outside

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53
Q

ion distribution

A

mainly due to diff in [] Na and k

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54
Q

Typical value

A

resting membrane potential -70 mV

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55
Q

forces affecting ion distribution

A

[] and electrical gradient

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56
Q

electrical-chemical Eqm for K and Na

A

K -90Mv
Na +60mV

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57
Q

excitable cell

A

generates action potential
communicate using AP

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58
Q

action potential

A

generated through depolarization events
goes beyond -55mV

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59
Q

main steps for action potential

A

1)stimulus
2)depolarization
3) repolarization
4)hyperpolarization
5)resting stage

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60
Q

step 1 action potential

A

stimulus trigger depolarization making cell’s inside +,
-threshold -55mV

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61
Q

failed initiations

A

depolarization is under -55mV

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62
Q

step 2 action potential

A

depol
-Na+ channels open, K+ is closed
-inside +

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63
Q

step 3 action potential

A

repol
-K+ channels open, Na+ channels closed
inside -

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64
Q

step 4 action potential

A

hyper
-also called relative refractory period
-overcorrection, too negative inside
hard to elicit AP b/c Na+ channels are closed

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65
Q

step 5 action potential

A

RMP is restored

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66
Q

soma

A

body of the cell
location of nucleus and organelles

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67
Q

dendrites

A

soma projections site to communicate with other neurons
directing AP towards soma

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68
Q

axon

A

directs the AP away from soma

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69
Q

axon terminals

A

ends of axon, transmits info to next cell using neurotransmitters

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70
Q

myelin sheath

A

insulating layer around axon
ensures AP transmits fast along axon
myelin made of protein and fatty acids/phospholipid membrane

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71
Q

schwann cell

A

cell that surrounds axon, produces myelin, ensures that neuron stays alive

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72
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

myelin-sheath gaps, rich in ion channels, helps with fast production of AP

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73
Q

propagation of AP

A

-movement of a AP along a membrane

dendrites>soma>axon>axon terminals
neurotransmitters release from pre-synaptic neuron > post-synaptic cell by binding to ion channel > depolarization
(think of draw from gr12 bio)

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74
Q

cause of direction of propagation of AP

A

refractory periods

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75
Q

saltatory conduction

A

AP skip from node to node
-transmission of a nerve impulse along a myelinated fiber
-faster

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76
Q

unmyelinate vs myelin neurons

A

unmyelinates AP is 10-15x slower
-myelin=faster

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77
Q

Central nervous system

A

brain and spinal cord

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78
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

nerves from CNS to muscles and organs

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79
Q

types of PNS

A

somatomotor/somatic and autonomic

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80
Q

somatomotor

A

going to skeletal muscles to power voluntary movement

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81
Q

autonomic

A

going to automatic organs
unvoluntary

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82
Q

glial cell

A

90% of the brain
provides the necessary environment for the neurons in function properly
also called neuroglia

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83
Q

types of neurons

A

bipolar, unipolar, multipolar

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84
Q

bipolar neurons

A

have 2 processes extending from cell body
-1 axon and 1 dendrite
specialized neuron found in retina

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85
Q

unipolar neurons

A

have 1 process extending from cell body
-located in peripheral nerves
-transmit signals to and from spinal cord

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86
Q

multipolar neurons

A

contains many branching dendrites and 1 axon
-is most common in CNS
-connect to cns with effect organs

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87
Q

type of CNS neuroglia

A

ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, astrocystes, microglia

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88
Q

ependymal cells

uh·pen·duh·muhl

A

-create cerebral spinal fluid
-lines ventricles of the brain and spinal cord
-cilia and microvili absorb and circulates CSF
-osmotic central for neurons

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89
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

myelin forming cells
one can mylinde several axons and incapable of replication upon injury

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90
Q

astrocytes

A

-clean up brain depris > digest dead neurons
-gives nutrients to neuron
-hold neurons in place
-promotes synaptic connections

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91
Q

microglia

A

involved with engulfing and removing foreign and damaged materials, cells and organisms

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92
Q

type of PNS neuroglia

A

satellite cells, and schwann cells

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93
Q

satellite cells

A

provide nutrients and structural support to neurons of the PNS, by bundling the axons close together and keeping them from touching each other

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94
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

-autoimmune, progressive disease that attacks myeline sheath
-if nerve is connect to muscle, muscle can’t contract
-chronic inflammatory response on myelin sheath
-2x high in women

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95
Q

2 brain hemispheres

A

left-sends signals to activate muscles
right-sends sensory info to left (vice verse)

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96
Q

frontal lobe parts

A

home to primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, and prefrontal cortex

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97
Q

primary motor cortex

A

process input from skeletal muscles

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98
Q

premotor cortex

A

integrate movement info with sensory input to cause perception of stimuli

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99
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

integrate movement info with sensory input to cause perception of stimuli

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100
Q

parietal lobe

A

primary somatosensory cortex
-integrate sensory info to form meaningful perceptions.

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101
Q

cerebellum

A

coordinated movement and balance

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102
Q

brainstem

A

midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
controls basic function like heart rate and respiration

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103
Q

occipital lobe

A

primary visual cortex> vision + visual association areas

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104
Q

corpus callosum

A

connects 2 cerebral hemispheres
allows integration of sensory and motor info to both side of body
coordinates whole body movement + function

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105
Q

diencephalon

dai·uhn·seh·fuh·laan

A

thalamus + hypothalamus

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106
Q

thalamus

A

receives sensory input as it travels from spinal cord and integrates sensory info

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107
Q

hypothalamus

A

controls endocrine functions (temp, thirst, food intake) using hormones
homeostasis
negative feedback
controls release of hormones from pituitary

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108
Q

midbrain

A

connects lower brainstem with diencephalon
eye movement, control over auditory and visual motor reflexes

dai·uhn·seh·fuh·laan

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109
Q

pons

A

relay center for info between cerebellum and cerebral center
coordinates and controls breathing

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110
Q

medulla oblongata

A

involuntary functions, breathing, blood pressure, swallowing
-fibres from corticospinal tract cross over the opposite side of the spinal cord to innervate muscles on the opposite side of the body

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111
Q

pituitary gland

A

hypophyse
regulates endocrine organs, regulated by hypothalamus

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112
Q

hormones

A

chemicals that communicate long distance through blood stream.
Maintain homeostasis
Secreted by pituitary gland

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113
Q

synapses and types

A

site where neurons exchange info
-electrical and chemical

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114
Q

electrical synapse

A

cell-cell communication where neurons exchange ions through channels

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115
Q

chemical synapse

A

cell-cell communication using neurotransmitters
-no channels

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116
Q

synaptic vesicles

A

contain neurotransmitters that are released in synaptic cleft

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117
Q

pre-synaptic neuron

A

transmits info to synaptic cleft via its axon + axon terminals to dendrites of next neuron

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118
Q

synaptic cleft

A

small space between axon terminals of 1 neuron and dendrites of another

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119
Q

post-synaptic neuron

A

transmits info away from synaptic cleft from its dendrites towards its own soma

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120
Q

ligand-gate receptor

A

responds when a molecule binds, can be an ion channel or trigger opening of an ion channel
also called ionotropic

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121
Q

steps of synapsis

A

1) Ap reaches axon terminal +
2) Ca channels open
3) Ca enters the cell, causing biochemical reactions that allow synaptic vesicles to fuse with pre-synaptic membrane
4) neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicle into synaptic cleft
5) neuro transmitters can then
bind to receptors on post-synaptic membrane
diffuse out of synapse down [] gradient
are broken down by enzymes
absorbed into presynaptic cell

6)neurotransmitter bind to ligand-gate receptor on post-synaptic membrane
7)binding neurotransmitters to receptors can cause depol or hyperpol of post-synaptic cell

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122
Q

define hyperpolarization

A

a change in a cell’s membrane potential that makes it more negative

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123
Q

define depolarization

A

a change in a cell’s membrane potential that makes it more positive

124
Q

excitatory sub-threshold potentials

A

bring cell closer to AP

125
Q

inhibitory sub-threshold potentials

A

bring cell further away from AP

126
Q

EPSPs stands for

A

excitatory post-synaptic potentials

127
Q

EPSPs

A

-depolarizing sub-threshold potentials (too small) therefore no AP
-increase the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring
-graded potentials
-produced by neurotransmitter than open Na and K channels
more positive

128
Q

IPSPs

A

-hyperpolarizing sub-threshold potentials
-decrease the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring
-graded potentials
-produce by neuron transmitter K (leave cell) or Cl (move in cell)
-more negative

129
Q

graded potentials

A

-determine whether or not an action potential is generated
local potentials that diminish with time and distance
can be excitatory (+) or inhibitory (-)
Amp is proportional to stimulus strengths
in dendrites or soma
caused by opening of ligand chemical gate membrane on post-synaptic membrane

130
Q

axon hillock

A

trigger zone for AP

131
Q

why no AP for dendrites and soma

A

no voltage-gated channels

132
Q

ways to strength EPSP

A

temporal or spatial summation

133
Q

temporal summation

A

additive effect produced by many graded potential, that have been generated at same synapse
1 neuron fire repeatedly

134
Q

spatial summation

A

additive effect produced by many graded potential, that have been generated at different synapse
many neurons fire at same time

135
Q

excitatory response

A

depolarization in forms of EPSPs

136
Q

inhibitory response

A

hyperpolarization in forms of IPSPs

137
Q

excitatory neurotransmitters

A

turns on neuron

138
Q

inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

turns off neuron

139
Q

acetylcholine (ex or in, function and location)

A

excitatory
muscle control and memory
CNS and PNS

140
Q

epinephrine (types, ex or in, function and location)

A

biogenic amines
excitatory
fight or flight
PNS-adrenal

141
Q

dopamine (types, ex or in, function and location)

A

biogenic amines
excitatory
voluntary muscle movement
hypothalamus

142
Q

serotonin (types, ex or in, function and location)

A

biogenic amines
inhibitory
mood, memory, sleep
gut, CNS

143
Q

events of NMJ

A
  1. AP propagates down axon of pre-synaptic neuron to reach axon terminal
  2. change in voltage by AP at axon terminals cause Ca channels on pre-synaptic neuron to open, Ca rushes in pre-synaptic neuron
  3. Ca in pre-synaptic neuron cause synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters(acetylcholine) to fuse in presynaptic cleft
  4. Ach is release in synaptic cleft>receptors on post-synaptic memberane, depolarization
  5. ACh in clef are degraded
    ACh–> acetate + choline (used to produce more ACh)
144
Q

fast transmission

A

ACh binds to nicotinc receptors, they open allowing ions to rush in + depolarized the cell

145
Q

nicotinic receptors

A

receptors that bind ACh at NMJ
-transmembrane receptor (spans plasma membrane of post synaptic cell)
-ligand-gated receptor

146
Q

slow transmission

A

ACh bind to muscarinic receptors, the receptors activate biochemicals reactions on cytoplasmic side of cell. then activate and opens ion channels in post-synaptic membrane
-longer process

musk;ah;rin;ick

147
Q

muscarinic receptor

A

-ligand-gated receptor
-not ion channel but lead to opening of ion channels
also called G-protein couple receptors
found on smooth + cardiac muscle cell

148
Q

end plate current

A

graded current in skeletal muscles

149
Q

end plate potential

A

generated by end plante current, could lead to an AP

150
Q

motor end plate

A

area on skeletal muscle plasma membrane where axon terminal communicate with the muscle

151
Q

RMP in muscle cell

A

resting membrane potential -90mV

152
Q

Cogan’s eyelid twitch

A

eyelids twitch while eyes move side to side

153
Q

myasthenia gravis

A

autoimmune neuromuscular disease
muscle weakness caused by antibodies binding to nicotinic receptors, blocking bind of ACh

154
Q

blocking acetylcholinesterase

A

slows down degradation rate of ACh so increases chance of ACh to bind

155
Q

cholinergic

A

all receptors that bind acetylcholine

156
Q

muscle

A

bundles of fascicles

157
Q

fascicles

A

bundles of muscle cells/fibers

158
Q

properties of skeletal muscle cells

A

long + cylindrical (1-12cm)
straited
multinucleated
large number of mitochondria

159
Q

sarcolemma

A

plasma membrane of skeletal muscle cell

160
Q

transverse tubules

A

indentations in sarcolemma

161
Q

terminal cisternae

sis; turn;ee

A

sections of sarcoplasmic reticulum

162
Q

the triad

A

t tubules and terminal cisternae

163
Q

myofibrils

A

bundles of organelles in skeletal muscle fibers
made up of myofilaments

164
Q

myofilaments

A

proteins, colour depends on thickness (thin or thick)
arranged in sarcomeres
cause straited look

165
Q

sarcomeres

A

-made up of repeating units of contractile proteins
-contractile unit of myofibril
separated from each other by z-line
at rest partially overlaps with thick myofilament

166
Q

thick myofilament

A

made of bundles of myosin
anchored to m-line
attached to z-line via protein, titin

167
Q

myosin

A

has a long tail and 2 heads
head acts as actin + ATP binding site
ATP binding site has enzyme, ATPase, to break down ATP
head changes to adapt to generate contraction

168
Q

thin myofilament

A

3 associated proteins
actin, tropomyosin, troponin

169
Q

actin

A

globular proteins linked to form helical strand
strung together
each has binding spot
associated with 2 regulatory proteins

170
Q

troponin

A

3 protein complex attached to actin tropomyosin
holds tropomyosin over myosin binding site on actin
3 subunits
troponin A, C,T
a-binds to actin
c-Ca
T-tropomyosin

171
Q

z-line

A

structural proteins that separates sarcomeres and provide support for contractile proteins

172
Q

m-line

A

provides support for thick myofilament

173
Q

I-band

A

area between z-line and start of thick myofilament
made entirely of thin myofilament

174
Q

A-band

A

spans lengths of thick myofilament, varies degrees of overlap from thin myofilament

175
Q

h-band

A

represents distance between 2 thin myofilament
spans m-line

176
Q

contraction of sarcomere

A

sarcomere shortens, more overlap between thick and thin myofilament
-2 z-lines that delineate a sarcomere get closer
-a-band, thick and thin myofilament length same
I-band length shortens

177
Q

sliding filament theory

A

sarcomere shortens

178
Q

sequence of sliding filaments

A

1.contraction is triggered
2.myosin head binds to actin > forming cross-bridge
3. myosin head changes shape leading to power-stroke to occur
4. thin myofilament slides past thick myofilament, moves towards m-line
5.z-lines come closer together

179
Q

excitation-contraction coupling

A

a process that occurs when an AP on the sarcolemma leads to the release of Ca ions from sarcoplasmic reticulum leading cross-bridge, power shroke and muscle contraction

180
Q

steps of excitation-contraction coupling

A
  1. AP generated at end plate of muscle cell
  2. AP propagates over sarcolemma and down t-tubules
  3. voltages sensors on t-tubule detects AP and changes shape
  4. Voltage sensors from SR open Ca channels and releases Ca
  5. Ca binds to troponin pulling tropomyosin off myosin binding site on actin
  6. myosin attaches to actin + power stroke occurs
  7. thin filament slides over thick filament and muscle contracts
    8.Ca is actively pumped back in SR by Ca ATPase
    9.when Ca is ‘removed’, tropomyosin cover myosin binding site
  8. muscle relaxes
181
Q

Energized state

A

step 1 the ATP-myosin cycle
ATP binds to ATPase binding site on myosin head. ATPase breaks down/hydrolysis ATP>ADP Pi
this process release energy that moves myosin head in position to bind to actin. ADP and Pi stays in ATPase site during energized state of myosin

182
Q

If Ca is presence during excitation-contraction coupling

A

step 3 the ATP-myosin cycle
binds to troponin C
troponin C moves tropomyosin, exposing myosin binding site on actin. If myosin head is activate and myosin binds then cross-bridge forms and contraction occurs

183
Q

If no Ca is presence during actin, myosin-atp cycle

A

No AP then no Ca released then no cross bridge and no contraction

184
Q

Power stroke

A

step 3-actin, myosin-atp cycle
causes change of myosin head’s shape
-when Pi is released from ATPase, Pi moves out, myosin head pulls on actin causing shortening of sarcomere
produces force

185
Q

detachment

A

step 4 myosin-atp cycle
Link between actin and myosin breaks, then ATP binds to the myosin head
Myosin head changes shape and resumes low energy conformation
when ATPase breaks ATP apart cycle restarts

186
Q

Rigor Mortis

A

3-4h after death
death stops ATP production b/c no o2
no ATP, actin-myosin cross-bridge can’t detach from ATPase site on myosin so no Ca back in SR. This then causes more cross bridges to form because Ca binds to troponin C
constant contraction

187
Q

is rigor mortis permanent

A

no because decomposing cause cross-bridges to break and protein to denature
^ temp makes rigor mortis happen faster

188
Q

motor unit

A

motor neuron and all muscle fibers it innervates

189
Q

muscle twitch

A

a contraction in response to 1 AP on the motor neuron
10ms-100ms

190
Q

latent period during a muscle twitch

A

1-2 msec delay from the time when AP reaches the muscle until tension can be observed in the muscle
-due to the time it takes for calcium to be released from the SR into the cytoplasm, reach and bind to troponin C, cause tropomyosin to expose the myosin binding sites on actin to form of cross-bridges

191
Q

contraction period during a muscle twitch

A

when muscle generates tension because cycling of cross bridges

192
Q

relaxation period during a muscle twitch

A

when muscle returns to normal lengths

193
Q

why does relaxation take so long?

A

Ca to be pumped back in SR by Ca ATPase takes long

194
Q

whys is muscle movement smooth but a twitch isn’t

A

the scattered arrangement of skeletal muscle cell ensure smooth contraction because diff motor unit fires asynchronously

195
Q

grading muscle contraction

A

increase in muscle contraction force through motor unit recruitment and/or summation of twitches

196
Q

Summation of twitch contraction

A

accumulating contractile force caused by increase in AP frequency and no time for full relaxation

196
Q

motor unit recruitment

A

more are recruited because more load or more force is needed

197
Q

Treppe

A

increase of force of contraction because increase AP frequency

198
Q

unfused tetanus

A

frequency of AP allows for partial relaxation, tension in muscle plateaus

199
Q

complete tetanus

A

AP frequency is so high that there is no relaxation between twitches

200
Q

absolute refractory period

A

no AP can be elicited
2Na can’t be fired one on top of other
this is during depolarization and repolarization period

201
Q

What is the direction in which an action potential propagates?

A

towards the axon terminals

202
Q

Pathology

A

causes and effects of disease

203
Q

two main types of brain cells

A

glial cells and neurons

204
Q

difference between AP and graded potentials

A

The amplitude of a graded potential varies with the power of the stimulus, whereas the size of an action potential is all-or-none, regardless of stimulation strength.

205
Q

symptoms of myasthenia gravis

A

Drooping eyelid
Blurred or double vision.
muscle weakness

206
Q

therapeutic approaches to myasthenia gravis

A

acetylcholinesterase blockers

207
Q

non excitable cells

A

cells that do not generate action potential

208
Q

somatic motor system

A

also called somatic nervous system
part of PNS
coordinates voluntary movement

209
Q

motor neurons

A

used in voluntary action
CNS
communicates skeletal muscle cells at NMJ

210
Q

parts of motor system

A

supplementary motor area
premotor area
primary motor cortex area
basal ganglia
motor nerves

211
Q

proprioception

A

the position of the limbs
brain knowing the positions of limbs b/c of receptors in muscles that sends signals back to brain

212
Q

premotor cortex

A

influence motor behavior and behavioral decisions
-develops appropriate strategy for movement

213
Q

supplementary cortex

A

program the motor sequences and muscle to move

214
Q

primary motor cortex

A

activates neurons that will activate muscle to perform an action

215
Q

motor homunculus

A

projection of body on the primary motor cortex’s surface

216
Q

primary somatosensory cortex

A

receives info from thalamus
detects sensory info
has a sensory homunculus/ maps regions of primary motor cortex

217
Q

corticospinal tract

A

pyramidal tract
major pathway from primary motor cortex to motor neurons that innervates muscle cells
80% of nerve fibers cross contralateral side of the body while 20% remain on the same or ipsilateral side
synapse with the lower motor neurons

218
Q

parts that are needed for proprioception

A

muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs

219
Q

what do muscle spindles do

A

sends signal to increase force production and prevent damage
-increase frequency of action potential in motor neuron, causes twitch summation and/or increase motor unit recruitment
compose of intrafusal fibers that runs parallel with extrafusal muscle fibers
responsible for sensing length and change in length of muscle
don’t generate force

220
Q

Golgi tendon organs

A

Signals information about the load and force applied to a muscle
Links muscles and tendon
Detects muscles tension

221
Q

intrafusal types

A

primary (Ia) and secondary afferens (II)

222
Q

primary afferen

A

provides info about length changes and velocity
firing rate depends on rate of change of muscle length (fire increase rate, during stretching)

223
Q

secondary afferon

A

provides info about change in length
firing rates doesn’t depend on rate of change of muscle length

224
Q

alpha motor neurons

A

innervate extrafusal fibers
contract to generate power
part of a motor unit
can innervate multiple muscle fibers at same time
only excitatory

225
Q

gamma motor neurons

A

innervate intrafusal fibers
don’t generate contraction
keep muscle spindle sensitive to stretch over wide range of muscle lengths

226
Q

alpha-gamma co-activation

A

When CNS sends out signals at the same time to alpha neurons and gamma motor to fire

227
Q

parts of reflex arc

A

needs sensory receptor, afferent neuron, 1 or more synapses, 1 or more interneurons, a motor neuron and effector organ

228
Q

reflex arc steps

A
  1. pain receptors send info to CNS
  2. sensory info is sent to CNS via afferent pathway
  3. afferent neuron synapses with an interneuron in spinal cord
  4. interneuron synapses onto efferent neuron
  5. info travel to effector organ using efferent neuron
  6. effector organs reacts (moves hand away)
229
Q

afferent pathways

A

take info from organs and tissues, and send it to CNS for integration

230
Q

efferent pathway

A

motor pathways
sends info from CNS to effector organ
alpha neuron that innervates the skeletal muscle at NMJ is motor/efferent neurons

231
Q

stretch reflex steps

A

1) tapping patellar tendon produces a small stretch in quad muscle
2)then leads to stretch of muscle spindles
3)then AP in afferent neuron that enters spinal cord
4)afferent neuron synapses onto motor neuron of qauds into spinal cord
5)motor nerve of quad. activates while the innervation to opposing muscle (hamstring) is inhibited b/c of reciprocal innervation
6)quad contracts and hamstring relaxes causing lower leg to kick

232
Q

how does the cerebellum work

A

motor cortex sends motor info to cerebellum then muscles
integrates info by comparing it to info from proprioceptors

233
Q

limbic system

A

emotional center within brain
coordinates a variety of autonomic, hormonal and motor effects related to maintenance of internal environment and coordinating emotional behaviours

234
Q

components of limbic system

A

corpus callosum
thalamus
cingulate gyrus
olfactory bulb
hypothalamus
amygdaloid nucleus
hippocampus

235
Q

amygdaloid body/amygdala

A

role is in emotional response to situations (anxiety, pleasure, anger)
determines how strongly memories are stored
alex honnold>not active

236
Q

body temp set point

A

37c

237
Q

fevers

A

set point changes to higher temp to try to protect body from microorganisms
hypothalamus wants body to retain heat by shivering and increase vasoconstriction in periphery
once infection is gone set point is back to normal

238
Q

sympathetic division (SYN)

A

ANS
responsible for activating body functions innervated in fight, flight or freeze
increase heart rate and blood pressure, dilates, airways, decrease blood flow and NRG to gut

239
Q

parasympathetic division (PSYN)

A

stores and conserves NRG
rest and relax
decrease heart rate and BP, directs blood flow to gut

240
Q

sensory receptors

A

sends info back to CNS through afferent nerve fibers (afferent pathway)

241
Q

organization of ANS

A

sensory receptors
info is integrated in CNS and signals are interpreted by hypothalamus
info from CNS is sent to effector organs or viscera through efferent fibers (efferent pathway)

242
Q

similarities between SYN and PSYN

A

preganglionic neurons that have cell bodies in CNS
autonomic ganglion
postganglionic neuron
sends info to target organ
neurotransmitter

243
Q

autonomic ganglion

A

togroup of nerve cell bodies that preganglionic neuron synapses onto relay info
allow info to be relayed to multiple organs

244
Q

postganglionic neuron

A

its cell body is locked in autonomic ganglion and synapses onto target organ

245
Q

differences between SNS and PSNS

A

SNS
-nerves exit spinal cord in T and L region
axon pregnanglionic N is short while post is longer a myelinates
autonomic ganglion is close to CNS
neurotransmitter in target organ is (no)epinephrine

PSNS
exits at brain stem and sacral region
axon pregnanglionic N is long while post is shorter and unmyelinates
autonomic ganglion is close to target organ
neurotransmitter in target organ is ACh

246
Q

acetylcholine

A

released at autonomic ganglion
binds to nicotinic receptors on dendrites of post ganglionic neurons
can use fast and slow transmission
binds to muscarinic receptors

247
Q

adrenergic receptor

add-rah-ner-gerik

A

receptors on target organs
2 types
alpha and beta adrenergic receptors

248
Q

alpha adrenergic receptors

A

smooth muscle + vasoconstriction

249
Q

beta adrenergic receptors

A

vasodilation, smooth muscle relaxation, bronchodilation, + excitatory cardiac function

250
Q

weirdness of adrenal gland

A

no PSYN innervation and post ganglionic neuron
medulla acts a modified autonomic ganglion releasing epinephrine directly in blood after excitation

251
Q

Extrafusal muscle fiber

A

normal contractile fibers

252
Q

Intrafusal muscle fiber

A

-forms the muscle spindle
-have stretch receptors that open and close when the length changes
-sends info from spindle to CNS

253
Q

environmental stimuli

A

detected by sensory receptor

254
Q

mechanical stimuli

A

touching skin will stretch sensory receptor + open ion channels causing depolarization

255
Q

chemical stimuli

A

like sour taste on the tongue or an odour in the nose, binds with a receptor, causing a depolarization

256
Q

electromagnetic stimuli

A

light absorbed by photo receptors of eye + depolarizes

257
Q

adequate stimulus

A

environmental stimulus where sensory receptors are most sensitive

258
Q

somatosensory systems

A

detects sensations of touch, temp, pain
usually in skin

259
Q

free nerve ending function and sensitivity

A

detects various sensory stimuli (pain)
responding to a wide range of stimuli

260
Q

bulbous (ruffini) corpuscles location, function and sensitivity

A

Found in the dermis and subcutaneous tissue of the skin.
Detect sustained pressure and skin stretch.
Sensitive to continuous pressure and stretching of the skin

261
Q

tactile (meissner) corpuscles location, function and sensitivity

A

Found in glabrous (hairless) skin
detect light touch and low frequency vibrations
sensitive to texture and fine touch

262
Q

lammilar (pacinian) corpuscles

A

deep in dermis + hypodermis
detects deep pressure and high frequency
sensitive to mechanical changes

263
Q

receptor generated potential

A

a sensory receptor responds to a stimulus, by releasing to neurotransmitters and stimulating dendrite. Then will generate a RGP
-changes in the membrane potential of sensory receptor cells
-local
-decrease over time
-is proportional to stimulus

264
Q

Neural coding

A

-sensory cell releases neurotransmitter proportional to stimuli
-elicits more or fewer AP
-brain interprets frequency of AP

265
Q

Spinothalamic/anterolateral tract

A

-Pain,crude touch, temp
-Free nerve ending will signal using this path
-First order nerve/sensory nerve takes info and crosses over then to the dorsal column. it will synapse with a second order nerve.2nd order nerve carries info to thalamus. There it is related to the proper place/third order nerve. At 3rd Order nerve it will stimulate the sensory cortex.

266
Q

Dorsal column-medial meniscal system

A

-Fine detail, proprioception, vibration
First order nerve carried up to the upper part of the spinal cord then crosses over. Then synapse with second order nerve. Then 2 ON carries it to thalamus. Thalamus relays info to 3 ON and sends info to sensory cortex

267
Q

Sensory cortex

A

-As info comes from thalamus, it is sent to a diff region on the somatosensory cortex (homunculus).
-Left part of body interpreted on right side of sensory cortex viceversa

268
Q

visual systems

A

detects light, converts, it to AP + send these to primary visual areas for processing

269
Q

cornea

A

bends light rays to produce clear image

270
Q

iris

A

controls amount of light entering

271
Q

retina

A

converts light into electrical signal > transmits to brain

272
Q

fovea

A

sharp central vision

273
Q

oplic nerve

A

transmitting visual info from retina to brain

274
Q

retina cells

A

rod cell and cone cell
receptor cells>no AP

275
Q

rod cell

A

sensitive to light, function in low light
1 photo pigment- don’t detect colour
retina +around fovea

276
Q

cone cell

A

best under bright light
3 types > each with diff photo pigment
s cones short wave length blue
m-cones medium -green
lcones long-red
also called bulbous

277
Q

ganglion cell

A

receives processed visual info
transmit this info via their axons to brain
only cell to send AP, rest graded P

278
Q

amacrine cells

A

influencing the visual signal before it reaches the ganglion cells, which then send the information to the brain

279
Q

Vision in low light and complete darkness

A

complete darkness, membrane will depolarize and rod cells will release neurotransmitters that inhibits bi polar cells (inhibitory N)

with little light, membrane hyperpolarize and rod cells will stop releasing neurotransmitters> see some things but not in great detail

280
Q

vision in the light

A

cones become hyperpolarized by closes Na channels and turn off production of inhibitory neurotransmitters.
This allows more bipolar cells to be depolarized and release neurotransmitters onto ganglion nerve causing AP to reach vision center in brain

281
Q

saccades

A

eye movement that is rapid, jerky
ex. reading

282
Q

smooth pursuit

A

smooth eye movement to keep moving object focused

283
Q

vestibular ocular reflex VOR

A

eye movement focused on object but head is moving

284
Q

vergences

A

eye movement when something is towards (eyes converge) or away (eyes diverge)

285
Q

auricle-not first midterm

A

outer par of ear
collect and amplifies sound

286
Q

oval window

A

inner ear
stapes vibrates here making standing waves

287
Q

round window

A

inner ear
sound dissipates through here and don’t vibrate

288
Q

semi-circular canals

A

3 loop shape inner ear
maintains balance and spatial orientation

289
Q

auditory lobe

A

middle ear
narrow tube that connects middle ear to nasopharynx

290
Q

cochlea

A

inner
fluid filled
transforms sound vibration into neural signals

291
Q

incus, malleus, stapes

A

middle ear
bones
transmits sound vibrations from eardrum to inner ear

292
Q

tympanic membrane

A

ear drum
converts sound waves to mechanical vibrations
acts as a barrier

293
Q

external auditory canal

A

ear canal
carry sound waves to eardrum
protects eardrum + middle ear

294
Q

cochlea 3 compartments

A

upper scala vestibili
middle cochlear duct
lower scala tympani.

295
Q

spiral organ

A

sound wave converted to APs by hair cells

296
Q

resonance

A

standing wave bends membrane of cochlear duct to the point where there is max vibration for a frequency

297
Q

steps to hearing sound

A

1)outer ear brings sound along ear canal to tympanic membrane then middle ear
2)vibration go to malleus >incus and stapes
3)when stapes move, it pushes on oval window generating waves in perilymph fluid of cochlea
4)pressure waves travel through cochlea fluid causing basilar membrane to vibrate
5)mechanical NRG is converted to nerve signals
6)standing wave forms at basilar membrane (apex low frequency, base high frequency)
7)movement of basilar membrane is detected by hair cells> have stereocilia that bend when there are vibrations
8)the bending opens ion channel > depolarization of hair cells
9)triggers AP in auditory nerve fibers and transmitted to brain

298
Q

anterior semicircular canal

A

detects forward and backward head movement

299
Q

posterior semicircular canal

A

detects head tilts towards the shoulders

300
Q

lateral/horizontal semicircular canal

A

detects head movements >turns head L and R

301
Q

ampulla

A

each canal has one
enlarged region with sensory hair cells
have sensors to detect where body is in space
filled with endolymph filled

302
Q

utricle

A

detects horizontal line acceleration and head tilts in horizontal phase
has otoliths and bend. this sends out different amount of neurotransmitters that stimulate sensory nerve and signals brain

303
Q

otoliths

A

hair cells topped with Ca carbonate crystals

304
Q

saccule

A

detects vertical linear acceleration and head tilts in horizontal plane
has otoliths and bend. this sends out different amount of neurotransmitters that stimulate sensory nerve and signals brain

305
Q

vestibular system

A

1) as we move, cupola’s hair cells that move as endolymph move
2)the endolymph will lag behind + push the cupola over bending the hair cells
3)neurotransmitters are released, the amount based on how the hair cell bend
4)stimulates sensory nerve fibers + causes APs
5)interpreted by brain

306
Q

If steriocilia are bent toward the kinocilia, they will release _______ neurotransmitters

A

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Physiology 1020 (3 decks)

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