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SBI4UN 2023-2024 > Homeostasis > Flashcards

Homeostasis Flashcards

endocrine, excretory, nervous

1
Q

What is the purpose of homeostasis

A

to keep enzymes in their optimal conditions (keep them happy)
- high priority is invested into maintaining favorable internal conditions

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2
Q

Negative FBL
- what are they
- provide an example

A
  • works against change
  • maintains dynamic eq
  • wave function when graphed

ex: insulin and glucagon, reaction to cold, response to dehydration, respiration

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3
Q

Positive FBL
- what are they
- provide an example

A
  • reinforces change by AMPLIFYING affect
  • exponential, linear, geometric

ex: child birth, blood clotting,

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4
Q

explain the positive feedback loop in child birth

A

baby head pushed on cervix (stimulus) –> cervix tissue tension –> stretch receptors stimulated –> hypo stimulates ant. pit –> ant. pit releases oxytocin –> smooth muscle tissue contracts –> baby is pushed MORE = cervix is stressed –> cervix tissue tension

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5
Q

what are the components of a FBL

A

stimulus, sensor, control centre, effector

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6
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • main control centre
  • receives information from PNS (sensory) and sends appropriate instructions often through the pituitary gland
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7
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • posterior and interior portions
  • sits underneath hypothalamus
  • receives signals from hypothalamus and sends signals to wherever they need to go through HORMONES
  • controls growth, H2O levels (ADH)
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8
Q

what are hormones

A
  • chemical signals that influence cell activities
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9
Q

what are target cells

A

cells with matching receptors to hormones
- similar to substrate-enzyme concept

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10
Q

endocrine glands

A
  • secreted INTO body
  • travel throughout body via circulatory system to its target cells
  • EMPTIES its contents into blood stream
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11
Q

exocrine glands

A

secreted OUT of body through ducts

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12
Q

TRH
- name
- released by ___
- stimulates ____
- purpose

A

thyrotropin-releasing hormone
- released by hypothalamus
- stimulates pituitary gland
- allows glands to communicate with each other

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13
Q

TSH

A

thyrotropin stimulating hormone
- released by pit. gland

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14
Q

what connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland

A

infundibulum

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15
Q

thyroid gland purpose

A

regulate metabolism

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16
Q

parathyroid gland purpose

A

control Ca levels in blood

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17
Q

what causes abnormal growth

A

pituitary tube

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18
Q

Steroid Hormone
- characteristics
- how does it work

A
  • non polar = diffuses right into cell membrane
  1. diffuses into cell
  2. binds with receptor in CYTOPLASM
  3. HORMONE-RECEPTOR COMPLEX enters nucleus and goes thru protein synthesis
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19
Q

Peptide Hormones
- characteristics
- how do they work?

A
  • polar –> cannot diffuse thru cell membrane easily
  1. binds to receptor ON cell membrane
  2. produces G-PROTEIN
  3. interacts with ADENYLATE CYCLASE
  4. activates cAMP
    - activates protein kinase
    - reduced ATP (2 PO4)
    • metabolic changes in cell
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20
Q

Transduction/Phosphorylation Cascade

A

each protein activates the next like a domino effect thru phosphorylation and the last step is when the very last protein causes an effect on the cell

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21
Q

Explain Cell Signaling with Insulin & GLUT4

A

when blood sugar is high, insulin is released from liver which binds to receptor on GLUT4 membrane allowing the gates to open and glucose to rush into cell

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22
Q

Local signalling

A
  • nearby cells effected
  • uses NRTMS
  • immune cells use DIRECT CONTACT
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23
Q

Long distance signalling

A
  • distance cells effected
  • release hormones into blood and carry it thru out body (endocrine signaling)
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24
Q

BMR

A
  • basal metabolic rate
  • baseline/reference point of a persons rate of metabolism
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25
Q

what are the conditions that must be met when finding a persons BMR

A

awake, fasted for 12 hours, rested

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26
Q

what does BMR affect

A

insulin, sex hormones, etc but doesnt regulate them

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27
Q

what regulates BMR

A

thyroid glands

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28
Q

what do thyroid glands control?

A

prolonged stress and cold exposure, BMR

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29
Q

thyroid hormones

A

iodine + tyrosine = thryoid hormone

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30
Q

use FBL to explain how thyroid hormones work

A

cold (stimulus) –> hyp stimulated –> releases TRH –> pit. gland stimulated –> releases TSH –> thyroid stimulated –> releases T3/T4 –>inc BMR, glucose levs = H+ leak in mitochondria = thermal energy produced

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31
Q

goiter

A

occurs when theres low iodine
- low I = low T4 = inc TSH to stimulate hormones to make more T4 = builds up in thyroid

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32
Q

cretinism

A

no t3/t3 in babies = developmental delays

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33
Q

primary hypothyroidism

A

thyroid cant produce the hormone orders from pit gland

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34
Q

secondary hypothyroidism

A

thyroid isnt stimulated by pit gland to make hormones

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35
Q

hyperthyroidism

A

overactive thryoid = inc bmr = weight loss

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36
Q

graves disease

A

autoimmue bodies mimic TSH and overstimulate thyroid

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37
Q

relation b/w insulin and glucagon

A
  • antagonistic
  • both peptide based hormones
  • respond to [blood sugar] directly –> dont need hypo. or pit. gland
  • neg FBL
  • their effects trigger e/o
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38
Q

what happens if ur blood sugar is too high?

A

HYPERtonic solution –> RBC water LEAVES = BV inc = BP inc = inc dehydration

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39
Q

why do we feel dehydrated when our [blood sugar] is high

A
  • in order to secrete the excess glucose, we pee alot of it out along with the h2o that left our cells to enter out hypertonic blood
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40
Q

what happens if ur blood sugar is too low?

A
  • lose consciousness bc vital processes/organs prioritized
  • lose body mass thru protein/lipid catabolism to get more glucose
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41
Q

insulin
- secreted by?
- what does it do?
- how does it work?

A
  • secreted by beta cells, triggered by high blood sugar conc
  • stops sending glucose to gluconeogenesis and lipolysis. stores glucose as glycogen in liver
  • binds to cell receptor on membrane -> transduction–> inc GLUT4 production –> inc glucose intake in cells
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42
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

making new glucose molecules by taking the glycogen stored in the liver (glycogen –> glucose)

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43
Q

lipolysis

A

breaking white fat down thru beta-oxidation for more glucose

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44
Q

Glucagon
- secreted by?
- what does it do?
- how does it work?

A
  • secreted by alpha cells when low [blood sugar]
  • a-cells activated = released glucagon in blood stream –> go to liver to do gluconeogenesis and lipolysis
  • inc blood sugar
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45
Q

Type 1 Diabetes (Juvenile)

A

pancreas doesnt produce enough insulin = too much gluc in blood stream = hypertonic solution = dehydration, fatigue, weight loss (cells go to lipolysis for glucose)

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46
Q

Type 2 Diabetes (Adult Onset)

A
  • desensitized insulin receptors
  • GLU4 doesnt open
  • high blood sugar
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47
Q

what is the pancreas’ role?
- endocrine and exocrine function

A
  • acts as both sensor and control centre
  • endocrine fn: release insulin/glucagon to control blood sugar levels
  • exocrine: digestive enzymes
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48
Q

3 key characteristics of stress are….

A
  1. stress calls for action
  2. our body responds to physical/mental stress the same way
  3. can cause structural/physiological changes to our body temporarily or long term
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49
Q

what do our adrenal glands to when activated by stress? (3 marks)

A
  1. move blood away from extremities and to core organs
  2. vasoconstrict = inc BP = inc HR
  3. open up lungs = inc o2
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50
Q

what is our adrenal medulla responsible for?

A

fight or flight response
- releases epinephrine/norepinephrine

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51
Q

what does epinephrine/norepinephrine release cause/do

A
  • inc HR, BP
  • lipolysis (more gluc = more energy)
  • narrow veins
  • open lungs (adrenaline)
  • muscle glycogen –> muscle glucose (adrenaline)
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52
Q

what part of the NS is the adrenal medulla in? what is this part responsible for?

A

sympathetic
- alarm stage
- fight or flight
- short term

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53
Q

how does our ant pit contribute to our stress response?

A

secrete ACTH and beta- endorphins (pain)
- resistance stage
- sustained response

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54
Q

what is our adrenal cortex responsible for?

A
  • long term stress
  • creates/synthesizes CORTICOSTEROIDS
55
Q

what effect do glucocorticoids (cortisol) have?

A
  • MAINTAINS high blood gluc levels to help brain fn and have enough energy to SUSTAIN FOF response
  • breaks down fats EVEN MORE
  • suppresses immune fn and inhibit inflammatory response
  • released during intense physical exercise
56
Q

what effect does mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) have?

A
  • maintain electrolyte balance
    • reabsorb na/h2o in kidneys
    • inc BV/BP
  • release stimulated by dehydration, low na, blood loss
57
Q

using a flow chart, explain how our body reacts to LONG TERM stress

A

stress/rhythm –> hyp –> CRH –> ant pit -> ACTH –> adrenal cortex –> cortisol –> inc blood gluc, a.a, f.a

58
Q

what occurs in exhaustion stage?

A
  • no more F.O.F
  • long term effects of glucocorticoids
  • prediabetic (long term blood gluc levs)
  • lose muscle mass/strength
  • impaired congnitive fn (memory, emotion, decision making)
59
Q

cortical sex hormones

A
  • creates sex hormones before gonads develop
  • determines how gonads will develop through its levels in developing embryo
60
Q

where does intercellular waste come from

A

cellular rxns
- cell resp/metabolism
- CO2, H2O, NH4+, PO4+
- breakdown of a.a,f.a,n.a
- drug/toxin metabolism

61
Q

what is oxidative deamination?

A

removing an NH2 group from proteins turning it into NH4
- the remaining C molecule goes to krebs

62
Q

what is the diff between single cells and clusters when it comes to excreting intercellular waste?

A

small cells: diffusion
large cells: transport system

63
Q

what is a waste transport system made up of

A

circulatory system: prevents hypertonic solution of waste and how things actually leave

excretory system

64
Q

what type of animal excretes ammonia? what are characteristics of ammonia that can explain this

A

aquatic animals
ammonia is: highly soluble (can diffuse in h2o quickly) & high toxic (its alright bc its flushed out by currents in sea)
highly toxic: due to it being highly toxic, animal wants to excrete it quickly, often losing water. this is fine bc it lives IN water so can easily be replenished

65
Q

what type of animal excretes urea? what are characteristics of urea that can explain this

A

terrestrial animals
urea = processed nh4 (in liver)
- mid-soluble: larger molecule
- less toxic: less urgent to get rid of = can hold in more water
WATER SHOULD BE PRESERVED BC ITS NOT EASILY ACCESSIBLE

66
Q

what type of animal excretes uric acid? what are characteristics of uric acid that can explain this

A

egg laying animals
- low solubility: excreted as solid, once it leaves embryo in egg, wont come back in, protects embryo
-lox toxicity: doesnt damage embryo
- even larger molecule
- flying animals want to minimize weight, solid waste means less water loss/less need to drink more water = LIGHT!

67
Q

what are the 3 main job of the kidney?

A
  1. filtering out waste from blood
  2. maintain key conditions
  3. excrete hormones
68
Q

ADH (Anti-Diuretic Hormone)

A

purpose: reabsorb H2O, decrease urine output
- secreted by post. pit

stimulus: low bp, high osmorality
controls: collecting ducts, bp, osmorality
effect: makes collecting ducts more permeable to h2o by pushing aquaporins to membrane and allow more h2o to be absorbed = inc bv = inv bp = dc osmorality

69
Q

RAAS (Renin - Angiotensin - Aldosterone System)

A

renin: kindeys
angiotensin 1: liver
renin + angiotensin 1 = angiotensin 2
aldosterone: adrenal cortex (mineralocorticoids)
- Na/H2O reabsorption

stimulus: dehydration (low bv = low bp)
controls: juxtaglomerular cells, bp, bv
effect: angio2 inc bp aldosterone = inc h2o = inc v= inc bp

70
Q

EPO (erthyropoetin)

A
  • comes from BONE MARROW
  • secreted in KINDNEYS
  • promotes RBC production

stimulus: low o2 (hypoxia)
controls: RBC production
effect: inc RBC = inc O2 brought everywhere = dec hypoxia-inducible factor = stop hypoxia

71
Q

Bright’s Disease

A

cause: autoimmune disorders\diseases
response: inc bp, inflammation of tissues, protien in urine
treatment: low protein diet, ACE inhibitors, diuretics

72
Q

Nephritis

A

cause: autoimmune diseases/UTIs
response: inflamed nephron = inc pressure = nephron damaged = RBC in urine = improper waste secretion (escaping from the glomerulus)
activates RAAS = inc bp
Treatment: antibiotics, steroids, antiinflammatory

73
Q

hypertension

A

cause: high bp
response: high bp = damage blood vessel = damage nephron
- vasoconstriction inc = flexibility dec
adh/raas: more salt = more h2o = more v = more bp
Treatment: ACE, diuretics

74
Q

Diabetes Insipidus

A

cause: improper secretion/response to ADH
response: improper response = not enough water being reabosrbed = water treated as waste = peeing a lot
treatment: synthetic adh drugs

75
Q

kidney stones

A

cause: crystallization of salts in urine (uric acid, ca, oxalate)
response: stones in collecting ducts
treatment: diuretic, pain medicine, break them apart

76
Q

purpose of nervous system

A

gathers, interprets and transmits info between cells

77
Q

central nervous system
- what does it do
- what body parts are included

A

receives input from PNS (sensory), processes info and coordinates a response (sometimes sent to PNS (motor))
- brain and spinal cord

78
Q

what parts of the brain are apart of the CNS

A

cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem

79
Q

white matter

A

bundles of myelinated axons
- continuous

80
Q

grey matter

A

unmyelinated axons, nuclei and dendrites
- where synapses occur
- what surface of brain is mostly made of

81
Q

what would happen if the brains grey matter was somehow damaged

A

synapses wouldnt occur properly, nerves wouldnt be able to communicate to each other, vital signals wouldnt be sent out, we die

82
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

shock absorber
- blood brain barrier: blood doesnt actually come in contact with the brain
- allows nutrients to circulate in the CNS

83
Q

Peripheral nervous system
- what does it do
- what parts are involved

A

connects CNS to muscles/other organs
- sensory receptor: responds to internal/external stimulus
- motor output: receives response from cns and uses effector cells to act on them

84
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

automatic response we do without thinking

85
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

rest and digest

86
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

fight or flight

87
Q

somatic nervous system

A

voluntary movement

88
Q

neruons

A

bundles of cells that make up nerves, carrying impulses in ONE direction through synapses and action potential

89
Q

dendrites

A

receives info from other neurons, carries impulse towards axon

90
Q

axon terminals

A

connect neuron to many other neurons, glands or muscles
- brings impulse AWAY from axon

91
Q

reflex arc

A

stimulus –> sensory neuron (PNS) –> interneuron (spinal cord - CNS) –> motor neuron (PNS) –> response

92
Q

gyri

A

bumps/ridges

93
Q

SULCI

A

crevices/valleys

94
Q

purpose of gyri/sulci

A

folding increases SA and represents the synapses

95
Q

corpus callosum

A
  • where left and right brain hemisphere connect
  • thick bundle of axons (white matter)
96
Q

parts of forebrain

A

– diencephalon
- cerebrum

97
Q

diencephalon

A
  • major relay centre
  • monitors homeostasis
97
Q

cerebrum

A

largest part of the brain
- split into 4 main sections: temporal, parietal, occipital, frontal

98
Q

frontal lobe

A

responsible for speech, emotions, motor controls and DECISION MAKING

99
Q

parietal lobe

A

responsible for speech, taste, reading, sensory

100
Q

temporal lobe

A

balance and hearing

101
Q

occipital lobe

A
  • vision
101
Q

thalamus responsibility

A
  • switching centre for nerve messages
  • sensory info (except smell) goes here first
101
Q

what does pons and medulla oblongta do

A

control our HR, vasoconstriction, digestion, swallowing, vomitting and respiration

101
Q

what is in the hindbrain

A
  • brain stem
  • medulla oblongta
  • pons
  • cerebellum
101
Q

brain stem

A
  • connects brain to spinal cord
  • smallest, oldest, most primitive part of body
  • autonomic nervous system
  • responsible for essential body functions
101
Q

cerebellum

A

fine motor control and balance

101
Q

cerebral cortex

A

thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebrum

101
Q

what parts of the brain are in the limbic system

A
  • hippocampus
  • amygdala
  • thalamus
  • hypothalamus
102
Q

what does limbic system do

A

stores emotions and emotional memories

103
Q

hippocampus

A

short term —> long term memory

104
Q

amygdala

A

survival type of emotions
- fight or flight
- hippocampus turned off when amygdala is active

105
Q

what is the purpose of the diencephalon in the limbic system

A

provides pathway for info going to limbic system

106
Q

the reticular system, arousal and sleep

A
  • regulates sleep and arousal
  • acts as sensory filter
  • the reticular activating system of reticular formation
107
Q

what is reticular formation

A

major switching centre and filter for sleep cycles

108
Q

sleep paralysis

A

mismatch between sleeping and awake areas of brain

109
Q

rem antonia

A

NRTMS paralyze all muscles during sleep, preventing o2 intake trigged by FOF during sleep paralysis

110
Q

what do these sleep waves mean?
- alpha
- beta
- delta

A

alpha: awake but quiet
beta: awake during intense mental activity
delta: deep sleep

111
Q

dopamine

A

pleasure
- becomes addictive
- main NRTM in reward pathway

112
Q

serotonin

A

happy

113
Q

GABA

A

inhibitory NRTM
- calms firing nerves in CNa
- contributes to motor control/vision
- increases focus

114
Q

glutamate

A

excitatory
- cognitive functions, synapses

115
Q

epinephrine

A
  • inhibits memory
  • dilates airways, inc HR, Blood flow, o2
116
Q

norepinephrine

A

attention and response
- fight or flight
- contracts vessels = inc blood flow

117
Q

acetylcholine (Ach)

A
  • learning, thought, memory
  • enhancement of sensory perception when walking
118
Q

heroin

A
  • before drug: dopamine NRTM inhibited
  • heroin mimics natural opiates and binds to opiate receptor allowing dopamine to flood into synapse
119
Q

marijuana

A
  • before: dopamine released inhibited by inhibitory NRTM in synapse
  • THC mimics anandamide and binds to cannabinoid receptors allowing dopamine to flood into synapse
  • anadamide removes unnecessary short term memory and relaxation of muscles —> forgetfulness and sluggishness
120
Q

LSD

A

LSD builds to serotonin receptors instead of actual serotonin resulting in an inhibitory or excitatory response depending on the receptor it binds with
- results in hallucinations and distress

121
Q

alcohol

A
  1. interacts with GABA receptors making the even more inhibitory
  2. binds to glutamate receptors = preventing glutamate from exciting the cell —> cannot rmr or make good decisions
122
Q

ecstasy

A

ecstasy mimi’s serotonin and is taken up by serotonin receptors instead —> confuses transporters —> actual serotonin is transported out of cell and trapped in cleft —> continuously binds to it’s receptors —> overstimulation

123
Q

cocaine

A

coke blocks dopamine transporters —> dopamine trapped in cleft —> keeps binding with receptors —> overstimulation

124
Q

methamphetamine

A

meth mimics dopamine —> transporters take meth instead —> meth kicks dopamine out after entering vesicles —> dopamine stuck in cleft, keeps on binding to its receptors —> overstimulation

125
Q

what determines the effect a NRTM will have

A
  • its time spent in cleft
  • concentration
  • IPSP vs EPSP
126
Q

what is the order of a synapse

A
  1. Ca++ enters axon terminal (presynaptic cell)
  2. entry causes vesicles carrying NRTMs to move towards membrane, leaving thru excocytosis
  3. gates open on post synaptic cell
  4. graded potential created

SBI4UN 2023-2024 (16 decks)

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