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principles > histology > Flashcards

histology Flashcards

1
Q

what do cells consist of

A

cytoplasm enclosed within a lipid sheath

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2
Q

what is cytosol

A

solution of salts and organic compounds

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3
Q

where does cytoskeleton radiate

A

from the nucleus outwards to the cell surface

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4
Q

what does lipid bilayer separate

A

the cell contents from the external environment

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5
Q

what is phospholipid head

A

water loving = hydrophilic

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6
Q

what is phospholipid tail

A

water hating = hydrophobic

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7
Q

how are phospholipid arranged

A

in a bilayer

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8
Q

what can cells absorb

A

gases or small hydrophobic compounds directly across the plasma membrane

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9
Q

how are anchored proteins anchored to the membrane

A

by acyl chain

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10
Q

how does solute move through membrane proteins

A

downhill its electrochemical gradient

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11
Q

example of membrane protein

A

cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator

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12
Q

what is the CFTR

A

chloride channel found on the apical surface of epithelial cells

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13
Q

what does CFTR regulate

A

the fluidity of the extra-epithelial mucous layer

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14
Q

what does water follow

A

the efflux of sodium chloride by osmosis

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15
Q

how do transporters work

A

by binding solute on one side of the membrane (conformational change) that exposes the solute biding site on the other side of the membrane for release

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16
Q

how does passive transport work

A

without an energy source

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17
Q

which way does passive transport move solute

A

downhill

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18
Q

does active transport require energy

A

yes

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19
Q

which way does active transport work

A

uphill

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20
Q

what are the 2 types of active transport

A
  • primary

- secondary

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21
Q

what is primary active transport

A

use ATP

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22
Q

how does secondary active pump work

A

driven by ion gradient

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23
Q

what are the 3 types of receptors

A
  • endocytosis
  • anchorage
  • signalling
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24
Q

what are the 2 form of receptor mediated endocytosis

A
  • phagocytosis

- pinocytosis

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25
Q

what are specialised phagocytic cells

A
  • macrophages

- neutrophils

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26
Q

what is pinocytosis

A

phagocytosis on a small scale and occurs continually

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27
Q

example of molecule that is pinocytosed

A

LDL

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28
Q

what is the endoplasmic reticulum

A 
an array of interconnecting tubules 
or 
flattened sacs (cisternae)
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29
Q

what is endoplasmic reticulum contiguouos with

A

outer nuclear membrane

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30
Q

what are the 2 types of ER

A
  • rough

- smooth

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31
Q

what does RER carry

A

ribosomes on its cytosolic surface

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32
Q

what does SER do

A

lipids and sterols are synthesised

steroids and drugs are metabolised

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33
Q

what does SER store

A

calcium that can be released in to the cytosol

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34
Q

what is the Golgi apparatus

A

flattened cisternae arranged in a stack

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35
Q

what does the golgi apparatus do

A

proteins, lipids and sterol from the ER are exported to the Golgi apparatus to complete maturation

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36
Q

what do lysosome mature from

A

the vesicles that bud from the golgi

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37
Q

what do lysosomes contain

A

digestive enzymes such as lipase, proteases, nucleases and amylases that work in acidic environments

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38
Q

what does the membrane of a lysosome contain

A

proton ATPase pump to acidify the lumen of the organelle

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39
Q

what do lysosome fuse with

A

phagocytosis vesicles to digest their contents

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40
Q

what do peroxisomes contain

A

enzymes for the catabolism of long chain fatty acids

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41
Q

what is hydrogen peroxide

A

highly reactive oxidising agent

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42
Q

what can catalase reduce

A

H2O2 to water

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43
Q

what is mitochondria

A

engines of the cell

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44
Q

what does mitochondria produce

A

ATP

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45
Q

where are mitochondria abundant

A

in cells with high energy demand

e.g. hepatocytes or muscle cells

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46
Q

what does the mitochondria have of its own

A

genome encoding 13 proteins

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47
Q

what is mitochondria’s membrane like

A

double membrane

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48
Q

what does central matrix contain

A

enzymes for the Kreb cycle

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49
Q

what is mitochondria’s inner membrane like

A

highly folded into cristae

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50
Q

what do Cristae do

A

increase the surface area

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51
Q

how is ATP moved

A

using the H+ electrochemical gradient

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52
Q

what are the other roles of mitochondria

A
  • roles in apoptosis
  • supply substrates for biosynthesis
  • synthesis of porphyrin
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53
Q

what is the most prominent cellular organelle

A

nucleus

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54
Q

what is nucleus membrane like

A

double membrane

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55
Q

what does nucleus membrane contain

A

nuclear pores

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56
Q

are euchromatin active or not

A

active

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57
Q

where is rRNA transcribed

A

in the nucleolus

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58
Q

what does the nuclear compartment of the nucleus contain

A

nucleolus

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59
Q

what is the cytoskeleton

A

complex network of structural proteins that regulate the shape, strength and movement of the cell

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60
Q

what are the components of cytoskeleton

A
  • microtubules
  • intermediate filaments
  • microfilament
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61
Q

what makes up microtubules

A

alpha and beta tubular

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62
Q

what is special about tubular structures

A

they resist bending and stretching

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63
Q

what are the 2 proteins in microtubule

A
  • kinesin

- dynein

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64
Q

what do intermediate filaments form

A

a network around the nucleus extending to the periphery of the cell

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65
Q

how do intermediate filaments contact with adjacent cells

A

via desmosomes

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66
Q

what is function of intermediate filaments

A

structural integrity

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67
Q

what are microfilaments

A

polymers of actin

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68
Q

what does the actin microfilaments control

A
  • cell shape
  • presents cellular deformation
  • involved in cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion
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69
Q

what does the cytoskeleton determine

A

cell shape and surface structures

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70
Q

what is the apical surface of some epithelium covered in

A

tiny microvilli

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71
Q

what does microvilli form

A

brush border

72
Q

what do microvilli look like

A

finger-like projections

73
Q

what do microvilli do

A

increase surface area for uptake

74
Q

what is at the core of microvilli

A

20-30 cross linked actin microfilaments

75
Q

what do cilia do in respiratory tract

A

moving and clearing the mucus that is used to trap dust

76
Q

what happens to cilia in people that smoke

A

become paralysed

77
Q

what is special about motile cilia

A

are longer

78
Q

what is at the core of motile cilia

A

axoneme

79
Q

what is flagella like

A

related to cilia but longer

80
Q

when is cell motility essential

A

development

81
Q

what is cell motility essential for in adults

A
  • macrophages migrate to site of infection
  • keratinocytes migrate to close wound
  • osteoblast tunnel into a remodel bone
  • fibroblast migrate to site of injury to repair extracellular matrix
82
Q

what is filopodia

A

actin remodelling in one dimension

83
Q

what is lamelliopodia

A

remodelling in 2 dimension

84
Q

what is pseudopodia

A

3 dimensional projections

85
Q

what is thrombocytopenia

A

platelet deficiency

86
Q

what are the 4 major tissue types

A
  • epithelium
  • connective tissue
  • muscle
  • neural tissue
87
Q

how are epithelium held tightly together

A

by intercellular junction

88
Q

how is epithelium separated from extracellular matrix

A

basal lamina

89
Q

what does epithelium cover

A

surfaces and line passageways

90
Q

what does epithelium do

A

protection and regulate absorption and secretion

91
Q

what does connective tissue do

A

support other tissues and give organs shape

92
Q

example of connective tissue

A

collagen

93
Q

example of bone cells

A

osteoblast

94
Q

cartilage cells

A

chondrocytes

95
Q

what is the extracellular matrix

A

gel matrix outside the cell

96
Q

what does extracellular matrix determine

A

tissue properties

97
Q

what is ECM in bone

A

calcified

98
Q

what is ECM in tendons

A

tough and rope like

99
Q

what is ECM in neural tissue

A

absent

100
Q

what does ECM determine

A
  • cell shape
  • migration
  • cell-cell communication
  • signalling
  • proliferation
  • survival
101
Q

what is the gel of ECM made from

A

polysaccharides

102
Q

example of polysaccharide

A
  • glycosaminoglycans

- GAGs

103
Q

what are hyaluronan

A

large hydrated GAG

104
Q

where is hyaluronan secreted into

A

joint space in synovial joints

105
Q

what does hyaluronan do

A

lubricate and help reduce compressive forces

106
Q

what are aggrecan

A

large proteoglycan

107
Q

what does aggrecan form

A

part of the articular cartilage of koitns

108
Q

what is decorin

A

small proteoglycan

109
Q

what does collagen produce

A

tensile strength

110
Q

what does elastin do

A

elasticity

111
Q

how can ECM be degraded and remodelled

A

by proteins of the matrix metalloproteins

112
Q

what is basal lamina

A

basement membrane

113
Q

another name for basement membrane

A

lamina propria

114
Q

what des basement membrane do

A

separate cells from underlying tissue

115
Q

what does breach of basal lamina mean

A

cancer cells

carcinoma-in-situ

116
Q

examples of immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion

A

iCAM

vCAM

117
Q

what do selections interact with

A

carbohydrate ligand

118
Q

what are integrins

A

membrane glycoproteins with alpha and beta subunits

119
Q

another name for tight junction

A

zonula occludens

120
Q

where do tight junction form

A

the top (apical) side of the epithelial cells in intestine, skin and kidney

121
Q

what do gap junction allow

A

low-molecular- weight substances to pass directly between cells

122
Q

what are the channel in gap junction regulated by

A

intracellular calcium, pH and voltage

123
Q

what are adherent junction

A

multi protein intercellular adhesive structure prominent in epithelial tissues such as fascia adherens

124
Q

what do adherent junction attach to

A

actin microfilaments inside the cell

125
Q

what do desmosome provide

A

strong attachment between cells and are prominent in tissue

126
Q

how to cells adhere to non basal lamina ECM

A

via secreted proteins such as fibronectin and collagen

127
Q

what kind of signals can cell receive

A
  • chemical
  • mechanical
  • electrical
128
Q

what are examples of chemical signals

A
  • hormones

- neurotransmitters

129
Q

what are examples of mechanical signals

A

biomechanical

130
Q

what do kinases do

A

phosphorylate

131
Q

what is signal transduction from the receptor to the site of action in a cell mediated by

A

small signalling molecules called second messengers

132
Q

what are examples of second messengers

A
  • cAMP
  • IP3
  • diacylglycerol
133
Q

what does IP3 do

A

mobilise calcium from intracellular stores

134
Q

when are G proteins active

A

when GTP bound

135
Q

when are G protein inactive

A

when GDP bound

136
Q

what does kinase do

A

phosphorylates

137
Q

what does phosphatase do

A

de-phosphorylate

138
Q

what does somatic mutation in BRAF cause

A

malignant melanoma

139
Q

what is mutation in malignant melanoma

A

V600E

140
Q

what is each strand of DNA made up of

A
  • deoxyribose-phosphate backbone
  • adenine
  • thymine
  • guanine
  • cytosine
141
Q

how are the 2 strands of DNA held together

A

hydrogen bonds between the bases

142
Q

what is DNA wrapped around

A

histone proteins

143
Q

what does DNA wrapped around histone form

A

nucloeosomes

144
Q

how is RNA transcribed

A

from DNA

145
Q

what does helicase do

A

unwind double helix

146
Q

how is DNA synthesised

A

in 5’ to 3’ direction

147
Q

are introns coding regions

A

no

148
Q

what are the phases of cell cycle

A

G1
S
G2
M

149
Q

how long does it take to complete a cycle

A

20-24 hours

150
Q

what are the phases of mitosis

A
  • prophase
  • metaphase
  • anaphase
  • telophase
151
Q

when is p53

A

between G1 and S

152
Q

what are main components of DNA replication

A
  • DNA helicase
  • DNA primase
  • DNA polymerase
  • DNA binding proteins
153
Q

how does DNA helicase work

A

hydrolyses ATP to unwind the double helix

154
Q

how to DNA strands pair up

A

antiparallel fashion

155
Q

what is the leading strand

A

3–>5

156
Q

what does DNA primase do

A

synthesise a short RNA molecule which acts as a primer

157
Q

what does DNA polymerase do

A

extends the primer by adding nucleotides to 3’ end

158
Q

what are the little bits of DNA on the lagging strand called

A

Okazaki fragments

159
Q

what does DNA ligase do

A

join the two DNA fragments together

Okazaki fragments

160
Q

what is prophase

A

centrosome forms

at the end the nuclear membrane breaks down and spindle attach

161
Q

what is metaphase

A

chromosomes are aligned

162
Q

what is anaphase

A

cohesin breaks down and sister chromatids are pulled in opposite directions

163
Q

what is telophase

A

new membrane forms around the daughter cells

164
Q

where are most of the cells during cell cycle

A

in G0

165
Q

what does cyclin E activated

A

CDK 2

166
Q

what does cyclin D activate

A

CDK4

167
Q

what does CDK 4 activate

A

Rb

168
Q

what does Rb release

A

transcription factor E2F

169
Q

what does cyclin B activate

A

CDK 1

170
Q

what is mature mRNA transported through

A

the nuclear pore into the cytoplasm

171
Q

what is mRNA translated into

A

ribosomes

172
Q

where are ribosomes formed

A

in nucleolus

173
Q

what is primary protein structure

A

sequence of amino acids

174
Q

examples of secondary protein structure

A
  • alpha helice s
  • beta strand
  • triple helix
175
Q

what is tertiary proteins structure

A

3D arrangement

176
Q

what is folding of polypeptides facilitated by

A

molecular chaperones

e.g. heat shock protein

principles (8 decks)

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