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Higher unit 2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Cell metabolism

A

Thousands of biological reactions that occur within a living organism
Reactions are catalysed by enzymes

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2
Q

Catabolic pathway

A

Breakdown of complex moles clues to simpler ones usually releasing energy and often proving building blocks

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3
Q

Anabolic pathway

A

Biosynthesis of complex molecules from simpler building blocks and require energy to do so

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4
Q

Example of catabolism

A

Aerobic Resperation

Releases energy needed for synthesis of proteins from amino acids

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5
Q

Examples of anabolism

A

ATP in the transfer of energy between catabolic and anabolic resperation

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6
Q

What allows processes to to under precise controls

A

Reversible and irreversible steps

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7
Q

Alternective routes

A

Allow sips in the pathway to be bypassed

Occurs when the cell has a plentiful supply of sugar

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8
Q

Cell membrane

A

Bouncy that separates the internal living contents of the cell from its external surrounding

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9
Q

What does the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane show

A

Fluid by layer of constantly moving phospholipid molecules that form a stable boundary

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10
Q

Freely permeable

A

Molecules such as carbon dioxide which are small enough to diffuse the the phospholipid by layer in a cell membrane

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11
Q

Protein pores

A

Lager molecules transported by certain protein molecules.
Transport molecules contain pores
Channel forming

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12
Q

Channel forming

A

Provide channels for specific substances to diffuse across the membrane

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13
Q

Protein pumps

A

Certain protein molecules wich act as carrier molecules recognise specific ions and transfer them across the membrane

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14
Q

Conditions required for protein pumps

A

Temp
Availability of oxygen and food
Theses factors affect reparation rate and active transport

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15
Q

Enzymes in membrane

A

Protein molecules are embedded in a membrane of phospholipids are enzymes which catalyse the straps in a metabolic process essential to the cell

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16
Q

Rate of chemical change is indicated by

A

The amount of chemical change per unit time that occurs per unit time

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17
Q

Activation energy

A

Energy needed to break chemical bonds in the reactant chemical

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18
Q

When do chemical bonds break

A

The molecules do reactants have absorbed enough energy to make than unstable
This is called transition state when the reaction can occur

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19
Q

Properties and function of a catalyst

A

Lower activation energy
Speed up rate of chemical reaction
Take part in reaction but remains unchanged at the end

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20
Q

Active site

A 
Located on enzymes surface
Flexible and dynamic not rigid structure
Shape is determined by:
chemical structure
Bonding between amino acids in a polypeptide chain
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21
Q

Induced fit

A

Ensues that the active site comes into very close contact with molecules of substrate
Increases chance of reaction taking place

When shape of active site changes to fit the substrate induced fit is formed

Weekend chemical bonds that must be broken in reaction
Reduces activation energy
Products then have low affinity for active sit and are released

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22
Q

Factors affecting enzyme action

A

Tepmetature
PH
Adequate supply of substrate

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23
Q

Inhibtors

A

Slow down the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction or bring it to a halt

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24
Q

Effect of low substrate concentration

A

Reaction rate is slow

Since there are too few molecules present to make maximum use of all active sites on enzyme molecules

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25
Q

Effect of high substrate concentration

A

Increase in reaction rate

More active sites can be involved

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26
Q

Why do rate of reaction graphs level off

A

All active sites are occupied so reaction slows down

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27
Q

What are enzymes in a metabolic pathway coded by

A

One or more genes

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28
Q

Why do some metabolic pathways only operate under cetain circumstances

A

Prevent resources being wasted

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29
Q

What controls the owning and offing of certain stages in a pathway

A

Inducer - on

Repressor - off

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30
Q

Competitive inhibition

A

Competes with substrate bind to active site
Similar molecular structure of substrate
Reversible
Slows down rate of reaction as active site is blocked by in it or and substrate cannot bind

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31
Q

Without competitive inhibitor increasing substrate contraction effect on rate

A

Increase in rate of reaction
End point - when all active sites on enzymes are occupied by substrate
Faster rate of reaction than with competitive inhibitor

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32
Q

With competitive inhibitor substrate conctartion effect on rate

A

Gradual increase in rate
Increasing concentration outnumbers inhibitor substrate so more and more active sites are occupied by substrates than inhibitor

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33
Q

Non - competitive inhibtor

A

Doesn’t combine directly with enzymes active site
Attaches to non-competing active site
Changes shape of active site of enzyme molecule and causes substrate not being able to bond to active site
Slows enzyme controlled reactions
Non - reversible when substrate concentration increases

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34
Q

Feedback inhibition

A

Occurs when concentration of end product becomes critical and inhibits an earlier enzyme, blocking the pathway, preventing further synthesis of the end-product
When some of the end product combined to enzyme 1 it prevents conversion from different stages

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35
Q

What property of a competitive inhibitor enables it to compete with the substrate

A

Molecular shape is similar to that of substrate

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36
Q

How is the concentration the difference of ions inside and outside the cell maintained
E.g Pottasium and sodium

A

The sodium-potassium pumps by active transport sodium to the outside and pattasium inside

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37
Q

What does the increase in oxygen concentration have on the uptake of ions

A

Increases

Slows down when energy becomes a limiting factor

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38
Q

Why would 2 lines on a concentartion/rate graph fail to meet if a higher concentration of substrate were used

A

There would be a few enzyme sites blocked by inhibitors

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39
Q

Affinity of substrate and products for active site

A

Substrate have high affinity for active site and products have low infinity allowing then to leave

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40
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Series of metabolic pathways which brings about the release of energy from a foodstuff
And regulation of high energy molecules ATP

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41
Q

Adenosine triphosphate

A

Composed to adenosine and 3 inorganic phosphate groups

When the bonds between the phosphates break energy is released

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42
Q

Phosphorylation

A

Enzyme controlled process
Phosphate group is added to a molecule
ADP + Pi ——> ATP

When phosphate and energy is transferred from ATP molecules of a reactant in a metabolic reaction, makes the pathway more reactive
Cytoplasm

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43
Q

Glycolysis (Absence of oxegen)

A 
Splitting of glucose 
Begins in cytoplasm 
Glucose is broken down to form pyruvate
Series of enzyme controlled reactions
Doesn’t require oxegen

Energy investment phases:
2 ATP are used up per molecule from the first half of chain

Energy pay off phases:
4 molecules of ATP are produced from second half of chain
Irreversible
Net gain of 2 ATP
H ions are released from substrate by dehydrogenase enzyme
These are passed to a coenzyme molecule of NAD forming NADH
Process happens twice

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44
Q

Citic acid cycle (Oxegen)

A

Private is broken down to carbon dioxide and an acetyl group
Acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
Further H ions release forming NADH
Acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate
Enzyme mediated stages
Occurs in central matrix of mitochondria
Dehydrogenase enzyme removes H ions and electrons from repertory substrate and pass them to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH

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45
Q

Electron transport chain

A

Consists of a group of carrier proteins
They are found in chains attached to the inner membrane of mitochondria
NADH from the glycolytic and citric acid pathways releases electrons and passes them to the electron transport chain
When coming to end of chain combine with oxegen - at the same time oxegen combined with hydrogen to form water
In absence of oxegen cell cannot get energy from this

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46
Q

ATP synthesis

A

ATP synthase is an enzyme which synthesises ATP
Enzyme is located in the membrane of the mitochondrion
Energy to drive the synthesis of ATP comes from a flow of hydrogen ions across the membrane
As hydrogen ions pass through ATP synthase channel part of the enzyme rotates, generating ATP

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47
Q

Why do organisms not need to store ATP

A

ATP is manufactured at the same time it is used up

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48
Q

Transfer of energy vis ATP

A

Catabolic energy releasing reactions - resperation

Anabolic energy consuming reactions - synthesis of proteins
Transcription
Replication of DNA
Nerve impulses

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49
Q

Fermentation

A

2 ATP
Pyruvate takes alternative pathway due to no oxegen
Animals(some bacteria):
Glucose —-> pyruvate ——>(causes O2 debt to increases) —-> lactate ——.> (O2 debt repaid)

Plants:
Glucose —-> pyruvate ——> ethanol—-> CO2

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50
Q

Metabolic rate

A

The quantity of energy consumed by an organism per unit of time called metabolic pathway.

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51
Q

How can metabolic rate be measured

A

Oxegen costumed per unit time
CO2 production per unit time
Energy production- as heat per unit time

52
Q

Circulatory system in vertebrates

A

Blood moved through blood vessels by heat pumping

Capillaries allow oxygen to pass through blood stream

53
Q

Single circulatory system

A

Fish
Blood passes through 2 chambers of the heart
Blood flows to the gills at high pressure but is deleted to capillary beds at a low pressure

54
Q

Double circulatory system

A

Blood passes through the great twice for each complete circuit of the body
Blood is pumped to both the lungs and the body’s capillary beds at high pressure ensuring a vigorous flow to all parts

55
Q

Incomplete system

A

Amphibians and reptiles
One ventricle in the heart
Some mixing of oxygenated blood from the lungs and the deoxygenated blood from the body occurs

56
Q

Complete system

A

Birds and mammals
2 ventricles in heart
No mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

57
Q

What can metabolic rate be affected by

A

Abiotic factors
Temperature
PH
Salinity - level of salt

58
Q

Conformers

A

Internal environment is dependent on external environment
Use behaviour responses to maintain optimum metabolic rate
Narrow range of ecological niches

59
Q

Regulators

A

Maintain their internal environment regardless of the external environment
Higher range of ecological niche - requires energy
Physiological means - control their inner steady rate - energy is needed

60
Q

Physiological homeostasis

A

Maintenance of the body’s internal environment whin limits of the bossy external environment
Brought about by negative feedback control - requires energy

61
Q

Negative feedback control (corrective mechanism)

A

When factors affect the body’s internal environment - ducted by receptors
Receptors send out nerve impulses or hormonal messages which are received by effectors

The effector brings out certain responses which counter react the original deviation
And return the system to set point

Provides stable environmental conditions

62
Q

Ectotherm

A

Animal which is unable to regulate its body temperature by physiological means
E.g fish, reptiles, invertebrates, amphibians

Body temperature varies directly with the external environment

Obtain most body heat by absorbing it from external environment

63
Q

Endotherms

A

Animal which is able to maintain its body temperature at a relatively constant level independent of the temperature of the external environment

E.g birds and mammals

High metabolic rate which generates most of their body heat

64
Q

Importance of regulating body temperature

A

Most enzymes work best at 35-40 degrees

65
Q

What does efficient and active metabolism consist of

A

Enzyme controlled reactions and processes involving molecular diffusion that proceed at octal rates regardless of external envirnments

66
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Body’s temperature monitoring centre
sensitive to nerve Impulses
Has central thermoreceptors which receive nerve impulses from skin thermoreceptors and sensitive to changes in temp of blood

67
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Centre hypothalamus
Sensitive to changes in the temperature
Of blood which intern reflect changes in the temperature of the body core
Responds to information by sending nerve impulses to the effector
This triggers corrective feedback mechanism nad returns the body temperature to the normal

68
Q

Skin

A

In response to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus, the skin acts as an effector
Insulates body e.g shivering, increase metabolic rate

69
Q

Vasodilation

A

Arterielles leading to skin become diluted
Allows large volume of blood to flow through capillaries near the skin surface
So the blood is able to lose heat through radiation

70
Q

Increase the rate of sweating

A

Heat energy from the body is used to convert the water in sweat to water vapour lowering body temperature

71
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

Arterioles leading to the skin become restricted
Allows only a small volume of blood to flow through surface capillaries
Little heat is lost from radiation

72
Q

Contraction of erector muscle

A

More effective in furry niemals than humans
Hairs being raised from skin surface
Wide layer of heat (for conductor of heat)
Id trapped between the animals body and the external environment
Layer of insulation reduces heat loss

73
Q

Physiological homeostasis

A

Maintain everything of the body’s internal environment within certain tolerable limits despite changes in the body’s external environment

74
Q

Advantage of negative feedback control

A

Provides stable conditions needed by its body to function efficiently despite wide fluctuations in the external environment

75
Q

2 effector hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to

A

Skin

Skeletal muscles

76
Q

Why do animals with smaller body size loose more heat with low temperature

A

Smaller animals need higher metabolic rate because it has the largest surface area
Relative to its body size from which heat can be lost
Smaller animals respire quicker

77
Q

Fish

A

Single circulatory system - primitive
2 chamber in heart - 1 artria- 1 ventricle
Low pressure of blood arriving at skeletal muscles

78
Q

Amphibians and reptiles

A

Incomplete double circulatory system - intermediate
3 chamber in heat - 2 atria - 1 ventricle
High pressure of blood arriving at skeletal muscles

79
Q

Mammals and birds

A

Complete double circulatory system - advanced

4 chambers in heart - 2 artria - 2 ventricles high pressure of blood arriving at skeletal muscles

80
Q

Advantage of enzyme modification of glucose

A

Trapped inside and cannot diffuse out of the cell

81
Q

Channel protein

A

Allows relatively large molecules to pass through

Small molecules and ions can pass through phospholipids

82
Q

Presence/absence of enzymes in metabolic pathways

A

Presence - Reactions proceeds

Absence - reaction prevented

83
Q

Where is NAD located in the mitochondria

A

Inner membrane

84
Q

Homeostasis

A

The maintenance of a steady internal environment independent of the external environment

85
Q

Surviving adverse conditions

A

Reduction in metabolic rate enables an organism to avoid expending excessive quanitities of energy trying to stay warm in extremely cold climate or sat cool in a extremely warm climate

86
Q

Adaptation

A

Enables organisms to survive adverse conditions

87
Q

Types of adaption

A

Structural
Physiological
Behavioural

88
Q

Structural adaption

A

Involving specialised structures possess by the organism E.g bigger body size in colder climates - less surface area which heat is lost

89
Q

Physiological

A

Depending on ways in which the organisms body and metabolism operate e.g hibernation conserves energy

90
Q

Behavioural

A

Depending on the ways in which the organism responds to stimuli E.g share a den - heat loss from external environment decreases
Migration to warm climate

91
Q

Dormancy

A

Occurs as part of an organisms life cycle when its growth and development and temporarily arrested
Metabolic rate decreases

92
Q

Preventive dormancy

A

Organism becomes dormant before the arrival of adverse conditions

93
Q

Consequential dormancy

A

Organism becomes dormant after the arrival of adverse conditions

94
Q

Adverse conditions

A

When the external environment changes exceeding the limits the organism metabolic rate can survive

95
Q

Advantage of consquential dormacy

A

Organism can remain active for longer and continue to exploit available resources

96
Q

Disadvantage of consequential dormancy

A

May kill off many organisms before they have had time to become dormat

97
Q

Hibernation

A 
Endothermic animals - consume extra food which becomes laid down as a store of fat
Rate of metabolism drops
Decrease in body temperature
Slower heart rate
Slower breathing rate
Inactivity
98
Q

Aestivation

A

How animals survive Period of extreme heate and drought

E.g covers its self in mucus forming waterproof layer

99
Q

Daily torpor

A 
Animals rate of metabolism and activity become greatly reduced for every 24 hour cycle
Slow heart rate
Slow breathing arte
Decrease in bod temperature
Decreases rate of energy consumption
100
Q

Migration

A

Relocating to more suitable conditions
relatively long distance
Avoid metabolic adversity

101
Q

What is metabolis adversity caused by

A

Shortage of food and low temperature

102
Q

Ringing with metal bands

A

To see if they have returned

Metal band placed around there legs

103
Q

Satallite tracking

A

Transmitters are glued to the animals body or implanted under its skin
Information receives by on-earth orbiting satalites
Tracks animals routes

104
Q

Innate behaviour

A

Inherited and inflexible
Response to an external stimulus
Such as a change in day length
Done buy all members of species

105
Q

Learnerd behaviour

A

Gained by experience and trial and error
Flexible
Transmission by members in a social group

106
Q

microganisms

A 
bacteria
archaea
eukaryotes
need energy from organic food
produce useful metabolic products e.g bread
107
Q

industrial uses

A 
easy cultered
reproduce and grow quickly
food substrate is cheap
produce useful products
metabolism can be manipulated  easily bu changing environmental factors
108
Q

Energy used to grow microbes

A

Unicellular algae- light energy - photosynthesis

Bacteria + fungi - chemical substrate

109
Q

Types of growth media

A

Liquid medium -broth
Solid medium - agar jelly
Essential nutrients are added

Lab - growth medium - Petri dish, flask or bottles

Industrial - huge stainless steel fermenters

110
Q

Culture conditions

A

Chemical composition of growth medium

Environmental conditions

111
Q

Chemical composition of growth medium

A

Raw materials - produce cellular building blocks - e.g amino acids, nucleic acid - biosynthesis + producing new cella

112
Q

Environmental conditions

A

PH
Temperature
Sterility
O2 concentration

113
Q

Fermentation

A

Aerobic and anaerobic processes
Compete sence when there is a change to the optimum conditions, also control when the total amount of product is produced

Made from stainless stell, plastic or glass so non permeable

114
Q

Conditions for culturing in a fermenter

A

30 degrees
10% oxegen
PH7
0.2 molar glucose solution

115
Q

Growth

A

Occurs when the rate of synthesis of organic materials by an organism exceeds the rate of their breakdown

116
Q

Why is dry biomass more reliable

A

Fresh biomass verwies depending on water availability

117
Q

How is growth of bacteria and fungi measured

A

Increase in cell number over a period of time

118
Q

Doubling time

A

Time needed for a population of unicellular organisms doubling

119
Q

Lag phase

A

Enzymes are infused to a metabolic substrate
Little to no increase
Cells adjust to growth medium
Increased metabolic activity

120
Q

Log or exponential phases

A

Cells grow and multiply at the maximum rate

No limiting factors

121
Q

Stationary phase

A 
Nutrients become depleated
Nutrients begin to run out
Rate of cell division decreases
New cells equal the death rate
Can result in second metabolite
122
Q

Second metabolite

A

Ecological advantage
Reproductive potential and chance f survival by expanding its range and out completing its rivals
E.g antibiotics

123
Q

Death phase

A

Lack of nutrient substrate
High concentration of toxic metabolites
Undergo lysis (bursting)

124
Q

Viable cell count

A

The number of cells that are alive and capable of reproduction

125
Q

Total cell count

A

All cells dead or alive

126
Q

Sterilisation

A

Prevents contamination by other species

127
Q

How can pH be controlled

A

Buffering

Addition of acid and alkalis

Biology (24 decks)

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