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Higher unit 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What dies DNA do

A

Stores genetic information
Determines the organism genotype
Structure of a protein

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2
Q

DNA strands are made of

A

Nucleotides

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3
Q

Nucleotides are made up of

A

Organic bases
Deoxyribose sugar
Phosphate group

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4
Q

Backbone is held by

A

Chemical bonds

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5
Q

Antiparallel

A

Sugar phosphate running in opposite directions

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6
Q

Bases are held by

A

Hydrogen bonds

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7
Q

3’ end

A

deoxyribose sugar

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8
Q

5’ end

A

Phosphate

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9
Q

Nucleotides can only add to the

A

3’ end

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10
Q

Genetic code

A

Formed by base sequence of DNA

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11
Q

Bonds in nucleotides

A

Covalent bonds

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12
Q

Charge of dna

A

Negative

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13
Q

Prokaryotes

A

Bacteria
Ring of DNA
Ribosomes

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14
Q

Eukaryotes

A 
Fungi, green plants and animal
Nucleus bound membrane
DNA linear - nucleus
Circular chromosomes - chloroplasts in plants
Plasmids present in some yeast cells
Mitochondria
Ribosomes 
Introns present
Response to antibiotic - growth not inhibited
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15
Q

Histones

A

Proteins DNA is tightly packaged around

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16
Q

Point of histones

A

So DNA doesn’t get tangled

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17
Q

DNA replication is controlled by

A

Enzymes

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18
Q

Primer

A

Short strand of nucleotides
Binds to the template DNA strand
Allows polymerase to ass nucleotides
Only binds to 3’ end

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19
Q

DNA polymerase

A

Adds DNA nucleotides
Using complementary base paring
Only adds nucleotides in one direction

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20
Q

What happens to DNA when it is unwound

A

Unzipped by enzyme helicase
Forms to template strands
Hydrogen bonds between bases are broken

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21
Q

Leading strand

A

Nucleotides are added continuously

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22
Q

Lagging strand

A

Neuceotides are added in fragments
Joined together by ligase
After neuceotides are added the primer is replaced by DNA

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23
Q

Steps of replication

A 
Helicase - unzips (fork structure)
Primer - starts replication
DNA polymerase - adds neuceotides 
Ligase binds it together (onlyon lagging strand)
Supply of ATP for energy
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24
Q

Polymerase chain reaction

A

Technique used to creat many copies of DNA

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25
Q

Primers in PCR

A

Short length of single stranded DNA
Complementary to its specific target sequence

Bind to target sequence

One primers is required to replicate each strand

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26
Q

Steps of PCR

A

Heated to between 92-98 degrees
To break the hydrogen bonds separating the two strands.

DNA is cooled to 50 - 65 degrees to allow each primer to bind to target sequence.
Tow primers can bind to each 3’ prime end (no lagging strand)

Heated between 70 - 80 degrees to allow a heat tolerant DNA polymerase to replicate each strand .
Assad nucleotides to 3’ prime ends
Must be heat tolerant so it does not denature

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27
Q

What is PCR used for

A

Crimes

Diagnosis of genetic disorder

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28
Q

Results of PCR experiment

gel electrphophsis

A

fragments of DNA are pulled through a gel matrix by an electric current, and it separates DNA fragments according to size.

The darker the colour the more dena there is

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29
Q

What is genotype determined by

A

Sequence of DNA bases in genes

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30
Q

What is phenotype determined by

A

Proteins that are synthesised when proteins are expressed

Can be affected by environmental factors

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31
Q

What are RNA molecules composed of

A

Ribose sugar
Organic base
Phosphate group

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32
Q

RNA

A

Nucleic acid
Single stranded
Uracil instead of thymine

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33
Q

What are enzymes made of

A

Proteins

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34
Q

What are proteins made of

A

Polypeptide chains composed of subunits called amino acids

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35
Q

What determines shape and function of a protein

A

Sequence of amino acids

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36
Q

Control of inherent characteristics via DNA

A

DNA controls structure of enzymes

And in doing so determines an organisms characteristics

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37
Q

MRNA

A

Carries a complementary copy of the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome

Codon - triplet of bases - codes for specific amino acids

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38
Q

TRNA

A

Carries specific amino acids to ribosome

Anticodon - complementary to an mRNA codon and correspond to a specific amino acid

Can’t bond to mor than 1 amino acid

One end has an anti coden the other ed has an attachment site

Found in cytoplasm

Composed of single strand of nucleotide

Folded back on itself creating 3D structure cause of the complementary base pairing

Hydrogen bonds

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39
Q

Transcription

A

Synthesis of mRNA from a section of DNA

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40
Q

RRNA

A

Made of protein + RNA to make ribosome

Site of protein synthesis

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41
Q

Anticodon

A

Exposed triplet of bases

Translation - anivodons Bond to coding by complementary base pairing translating the genetic code into a sequence of amino acids

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42
Q

Steps of transcription

A

RNA polymerase moves along DNA uncoiling the double helix and breaking the hydrogen bonds between the bases

Promoter region of DNA where transcription is initiated

MRNA gets a sequence of nucleotides complementary to one of the 2 DNA strands

RNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to 3’ end

Primary transcript forms - resultant mRNA strand becomes separated from the DNA

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43
Q

Introns

A

Non - coding regions

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44
Q

Exons

A

Coding region

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45
Q

What is the need for splicing

A

DNA transcribed to mRNA is about 8000 nucleotides long yet only 1200 nucleotides are needed to code for an average sized poly petite chain

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46
Q

Splicing

A

Intones are cut out and removed from primary trancript

Exons are spliced together to form mRNA with a continuous sequence of nucleotides

Mature transcript is formed - modified mRNA

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47
Q

MRNA after splicing

A

Moves from nucleus to cytoplasm

Translated into a protein

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48
Q

Translation

A

Synthesis of protein as a polypeptide chain under the direction of mRNA

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49
Q

Codon

A

Base triplet

Basic unit of genetic code

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50
Q

What does translation start and end

A

Begins at the start of a codon and ends at a stop codon

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51
Q

Result of alternating RNA splicing

A

Different mature mRNA transcript are produced from the same primary transcript depending on which exons are retained

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52
Q

What influences phenotype

A

Environmental factors

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53
Q

Genome

A

Sum of all genes in an organism

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54
Q

Proteone

A

All the proteins expressed by an organism

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55
Q

What percentage of genes are expressed

A

2%

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56
Q

3 types of rna

A

MRNA
TRNA
RRNA

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57
Q

RNA nucleotides are made of

A

Ribose sugar phosphate and a base

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58
Q

4 bases in RNA

A

Cytosine
Guanine
Adenine
Uracil

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59
Q

Where is mRNA trancribed

A

Nucleus

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60
Q

Where is mRNA translated

A

Ribosome in the cytoplasm

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61
Q

Where does RNA translation start and begin

A

Begins - start codon

Ends - stop codon

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62
Q

How anticodon and codons bond

A

By complementary base pairing
This when genetic code is translated into a sequence of amino acids
Peptide bonds join amino acids together

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63
Q

What catalyst is used for the formation of peptide bonds

A

Ribosome

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64
Q

What catalysed the formation of the sugar-phosphate backbone

A

RNA polymerase

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65
Q

What happens to the primary transcript

A

Introns are removed so the exon join together forming the mature transcript

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66
Q

Cellular differentiation

A

The process by which a cell expresses certain genes to produce proteins characteristics for that type of cell

Allows cell to carry out a specialised function

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67
Q

Meristems

A

Unspecialised cells in plants that can divide to self-renew or differentiate

68
Q

Pluripotent

A

Cells in the early embryo can differentiate into all the cell types that can make up the organism

69
Q

Tissue stem cells

A

Involved in the growth repair and renewal of the cells found in that tissue

Mutipotent - differentiate into any type of tissue stem cell

70
Q

How do cells have specialise functions

A

By expressing particular genes into proteins

71
Q

Where are stem cells in animals found

A

In the embryo and adult tissue

72
Q

What can stem cells be used for

A

Skin graphs

Bone marrow transplant

73
Q

Genome

A

An organisms entire hereditary information coded into DNA

Made up of:
Genes
Other DNA sequences that do not code for proteins

74
Q

Hereditary information

A

The sequence of DNA which is inherited

75
Q

Coding sequences

A

Sequences that code for a protein

76
Q

Therapeutic uses of stem cells

A

Corneal repair
Regeneration of damaged skin
Bone marrow transplant

77
Q

Why is stem cell research carried out

A

Information for cell processes

78
Q

What happens to cells once diffreciated

A

Only expresses the gene that code for the protein specific to the working of that particular type of cell

79
Q

Multipotent

A

Can differentiate into any cell type found in a particular tissue

80
Q

Ethical issues

A

To use embryonic stem cells human embryo must be destroyed

81
Q

Telomere

A

Repetitive DNA sequences that make up protective structure

At each end of a chromosome

82
Q

What happens to the sequence of DNA that does not code for a protein

A

Forms of RNA:
TRAN
RRNA

83
Q

Mutation

A

Change in the structure of an organisms genome

Random change to genetic material

84
Q

Single gene mutation

A

Alteration of nucleotide sequence in a gene’s DNA

Types of mutations :
Substitution
Insertion
Deletion

85
Q

Point mutation

A

Single-gene mutation that involves a change in one nucleotide in the DNA sequence of a gene.

86
Q

Substitution

A

Change in only one amino acid

87
Q

Insertion

A

Nucleotide is added into sequence causing amino acids to be altered because of the frame shift

88
Q

Deletion

A

Amino acids are altered because of the frameshift

89
Q

Where does splicing occur

A

Splicing is controlled by specific nucleotide sequence at splice site

90
Q

What happened if their is a mutation at a a splice site

A

The codon for intron-exon splice may be altered

May lead to intron bring retained
Or
Essential exon may not be retained

91
Q

Missense mutation

A

Substitution

Altered codon still codes for amino acids but not the original one

Causes small or no effect

If it happens at a critical position then it could be bad

Eg formation of haemoglobin S caused sicko cell anemia

92
Q

Nonsense

A

Formation of a polypeptide chain that is shorter than the normal one and unable to function

Insertion
Deletion
Substitution - if coded for a stop codon - prematurely stops protein synthesis

93
Q

Splice-site mutation

A

Mutation occurred during splicing where the wrong information is joined

If into a are retained or exons are not retained then this may cause the mature mRNA transcript to alter a protein during translation

94
Q

Frameshift mutation

A

When the sequence of codons are changed because of a mutation causing a protein to be almost non-functional

95
Q

Chromosome structure mutation

A

Breakage of one or more chromosomes

A broken end of a chromosome is sticky and it can join to another broken end

This can change the number or sequence of the gens in a chromosome

Types of mutation:
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion 
Translocation
96
Q

Deletion

A

Chromosome breaks in 2 places and the segment in between becomes detached

The 2 ends the join up giving a shorter chromosome which lacks certain genes

97
Q

Duplication

A

A segment of a gene becomes detached to one end of the first chromosome or becomes inserted somewhere else

98
Q

Translocation

A

Chromosome breaks in 2 places

The segment between the breaks turns round before joining up again

Causes normal sequence to reverse

99
Q

Inversion

A

Section of one chromosome breaking off and becoming attached to another chromosome

Causes problems during pairing of chromosomes gamates

100
Q

What does a tRNA anticodon become bound to at one of the attachment sites

A

To codon of mRNA

101
Q

What happens to tRNA once the amino acids make a polypeptide chained

A

Discharged from ribosome and reused

102
Q

Ways in which chains of amino acids can become arranged to form a protein

A

Chain coils to form a spherical shape

Arranged in long parallel strands

103
Q

Functions of proteins

A

Structural - make up the membrane surrounding a living cell

Hormones - chemical messengers transported in the blood stream

Antibodies - white blood cells that provide a defence system for the body

Enzyme - speed up the rate of reaction

104
Q

Differentiation

A

Unspealiased cells become specialised to a particular function

105
Q

Types of stem cells found in humans

A

Bone marrow
Adult tissue
Embryonic

106
Q

Why is duplication beneficial

A

Extra copies may mutate and produce new useful DNA sequences

107
Q

Evalution

A

The changes in organisms over generations as a result of genomic variation

108
Q

Natural selection

A

Non-random increase in frequency of DNA sequences that increase survival and the non random reduction in the frequency of deleterious sequences

109
Q

Delirious sequences

A

Disadvantageous

110
Q

Changes in phenotype frequency

A

Stabilising
Directional
Disruptive

111
Q

Stabalising selction

A

An average phenotype is selected for and extremes phenotype range are selected against

112
Q

Directional selection

A

One extreme of phenotype range is selected for

113
Q

Disruptive selection

A

2 or more phenotypes are selected

114
Q

Why is natural selection more rapid in prokaryotes

A

Prokaryotes can produce faster than eukaryotes
Transfer horizontally resulting in faster evolutionary change
Makes bacteria anti biotic resistance

115
Q

Horizontal gene transfer

A

Genes are transferred between individuals in the same generation

116
Q

Vertical gene transfer

A

Genes are transferred fromm parent to offspring as a result of sexual or asexual reproduction
Mainly in eukaryotes

117
Q

Specisation

A

Generation of new biological species by evolution as a result of isolation, mutation and selection

118
Q

Species

A

A group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
Does not normally breed with other groups

119
Q

isolation barriers

A

Prevents interbreeding between sub populations so allow them to become genetically distinct

120
Q

geographical barriers lead to

A

Allopathic speciation

121
Q

Behavioural and ecological barriers lead to

A

Sympathic speciation

122
Q

What causes the changes evolution

A

Changes to the genome sequence

123
Q

What in bacteria passes genetic material

A

Plasmids are used to pass genetic material from the genome of one individual to the genome of another individual

124
Q

Importance of isolation barriers

A

Prevent gene flow between sub-populations during speciation

125
Q

Allopatric specisation

A

Split sub-populations into separate areas

126
Q

Sympatric speciasation

A

Sub-populations live in the same place

127
Q

Types of isolation barriers

A

Geographical - mountains - rivers
Behavioural - different courtships
Ecological - preference of different pH

128
Q

RNA polymerase

A

Forms the primary transcript from RNA nucleotides

Ensures sequence of nucleotides is complementary to one strand of DNA

129
Q

Stem cells in red bone marrow

A

Can differentiate into platelets and lymphocytes

130
Q

Benefits horizontal gene transfer

A

High rate of gene loss

131
Q

How could horizontal gene transfer be risky

A

Genetic sequence may be harmful

132
Q

Genomics/bioformatics

A

Study of the genome
Determines the sequence of nucleotide base molecules i an organisms DNA
Relating it to gene function

133
Q

Restriction endonuclease

A

Enzyme that recognises a specific short sequence of DNA nucleotides called a restriction sit on DNA
Cute DNA at this site

134
Q

Shotgun approach

A

DNA cut into fragments using restriction endonuclease
Different restriction endonuclease cuts a copy of the genome
Order of bases established and put into computer

135
Q

Virus and bacteria

A

Disease causing agents

136
Q

Pest species

A

Eg mosquito

Act as vectors for Malerin and the unicellular organisms that causes malaria

137
Q

Model organisms

A

Processes gene equivalents to genes in humans important for disease and disorder
Importance for research

138
Q

Single nucleotide polymorphism

A

Variation in the DNA sequence that effects a single base pair in a DNA chain

139
Q

Conservation

A

Same or very similar DNA sequences are present in the genomes

140
Q

What causes differences in the base squwnce in genomes

A

Point mustations

141
Q

How to tell how close organisms are

A

The grater the number of conserved DNA sequence that their genomes have in common

142
Q

Phylogenetics

A

Study of evolutionary history and relatedness among different groups of organisms

143
Q

If only a few bases differ what does it mean

A

They share a common ansestror

The grater number of differences, the longer sense the point of divergence

144
Q

Molecular clocks

A

Shows when species diverged in history

Molecules of nuclei acid gradually change over time as they are effected by mustations such as nucleotide. Molecule of nuclic acid or a protein coded for by nucleus acid

145
Q

What has been used as a molecular clock

A

RRNA

146
Q

Why is rRNA used as a molecular clock

A

Constructing phylogenies
Genes that code for rRNA are ancient
Experienced little or no horizontal gene trasfer
Possess by living things

147
Q

Three domains

A

Bacteria - traditional prokaryotes
Archea - mostly prokaryotes that inhabit extreme environments such as hot springs and salt lakes
Eukaryotes - fingi plants and animals

148
Q

Fossils

A

Conservation of bone teeth or shells into rocks

Older the rock the less radioactivity it emits

149
Q

Bacteria

A

1 RNA polymerase

Response to antibiotic - growth inhibited

150
Q

Archaea

A

Introns present in some genomic sequencing
Several RNA polymerase
Response to antibiotics - growth not inhibited

151
Q

Genetic disorder

A

Result of variation in a genomic DNA sequence

152
Q

Risks of variations in DNA

A

Diabetics
Heat disease
Cancer

153
Q

Pharmacogenetics

A

Personalised medicine
Uses of genome information in the choice of drugs
This is uses to select the most effective drugs and dosage to treat their disease

154
Q

Sequence divergence

A

Used to estimate time since lineages diverged

155
Q

Why do scientists normally express the length of a chromosome in number of base pairs

A

Constant reliable measurement whereas length measured in um varies according to the degree of coiling

156
Q

Primer in PCR

A

Piece of single stranded DNA synthesised as the exact compliment of a short length of the DNA stand to which it is to become attached

157
Q

What determines the distance travelled by DNA in the gel

A

Sizes and weight of molecule

E.g small molecule moves further than larger molecular

158
Q

What must happen before translation can begin

A

Ribosome must bind to the 5’ end of the mRNA template so that the mRNA’s altert codon is in position at the binding site

159
Q

What joins the mRNA coden and the complementary tRNA’s anticodon togther

A

Hydrogen bonds

160
Q

Release factors

A

Frees the polypeptide from the ribosome

161
Q

What type of energy does translation need

A

ATP

162
Q

What causes a polypeptide chain to coil

A

Hydrogen bonds form between certain amino acids in a polypeptide chain

163
Q

Corneal repair

A

Grown from patients own stem cells

Restores by replacing damaged tissue

164
Q

Totipotent

A

Stem cell

Able to differentiate into any cell type and is capable of giving rise to the complete organism

165
Q

When does specialisation occur

A

Circumstances that Interrupt gene flow between two populations curing there gene pools to diverge

166
Q

Bioformatics

A

The fusion of molecular biology, statistical analysis and computer technology

Biology (24 decks)

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