Henry VIII - Foreign Policy Flashcards
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What were Henry’s aims in foreign policy?
1 - Honour and glory 2 - To be internationally recognised as a warrior king 3 - To secure the Tudor dynasty 4 - Financial gains and security
What was Henry’s first action for foreign policy?
In 1510, he extended the Treaty of Etaples. However this was under the guidance of his councillors, it was clear that Henry had different ideas about foreign policy, and wanted a more aggressive approach
When was the first French War, and why did Henry join this?
- 1512-1514 - Henry had an ancient claim, as King of England, to the French throne
What happened in the first phase of the first French War?
- Henry acted under the guidance of his Father in Law, Ferdinand of Spain - He sent an expedition led by Marquis of Dorset to help the Spanish - This fleet was easily defeated, and one of Henry’s closest friends (Admiral Edward Howard) was killed in a naval engagement
What evidence is there that the first phase of the first French war was a failure?
- His fleet achieved nothing - He was used as a distraction whilst Ferdinand successfully conquered Navarre
What happened in the second phase of the first French War?
- Was led by Thomas Wolsey - The king led 30,000 men from Dover to Calais, in an alliance with the HRE - The army advanced to Flanders and captured the fortress of Therouanne - Soon after this, the English successfully captured the French city of Tournai
What was the ‘Battle of the Spurs’?
- After the English captured Therouanne, the French sent a cavalry force to try and capture it back. - This was easily defeated by the English
Was the ‘Battle of the Spurs’ a significant victory?
- Although it did give Henry some military glory, this battle is widely recognised as little more than a skirmish - Propaganda claimed it to be a stunning victory - Geoffrey Elton claims it as ‘nothing more than a futile side show’
What evidence is there that the second phase of the First French war was a success?
- Henry achieved military glory, one of his aims - Henry showed his strength as a warrior king by claiming victory over Tournai and Therouanne
What evidence is there to suggest that the second phase of the FIrst French was was a failure?
- Therouanne was a more significant victory for Maximilian than the English, and it can be suggested that it benefited Maximilian more.
What happened after the King left the first French war?
- The war continued, but proved costly, so there was pressure for peace. - Maximilian and Ferdinand settled their differences with the King of France
What did Henry gain in the peace treaty signed after the first French war?
- England kept Tournai - France increased pension - Mary would marry Louis of France - Henry promised not to use the title ‘King of France’
What was the Battle of Flodden?
- September 1513 - King James IV of Scotland crossed the boarder with a considerable force, but was put down by a small army led by the Earl of Surrey and Catherine of Aragon. - James IV was killed, along with a significant number of the Scottish nobility. This left the infant James V on the throne - Henry VIII did little to build on the advantage of Flodden
Why was nothing gained from Henry’s military adventures of 1513?
- The war was costly, causing Henry to liquidate his father’s inheritance - There was problems of the taxation in Yorkshire, which narrowly avoided a full-scale revolt - The renegotiated French pension was lost - Tournai was sold back to the French for much less than the siege cost Henry.
What three points can be made about the basis of foreign policy between 1514-1526?
1 - England remained a minor power and could not compete with the powers of France and Spain 2 - Henry overestimated English power 3 - The ‘Auld Alliance’ between France and Scotland remained strong
What were the two major concequences of Henry’s lack of money in foreign policy?
1 - He was unable to exploit the weakness of Scotland following the Battle of Flodden 2 - He sought peace with France with a marriage settlement, but this was short-lived.
Who was Francis I and how did Henry VIII see him?
- King Louis XII died soon after the marriage to Mary, and Francis I took the French throne - Henry saw him as a direct threat, as he was a young and charismatic king similar to Henry himself
Who was Charles V and who did they form an alliance with?
- Ferdinand died in 1516, leaving his grandson Charles V on the throne. - Charles V became the HRE in 1519, and formed and alliance with the French in the Treaty of Cambrai
How did Francis I confirm his power as a ruler?
- In September 1515, Francis won a sweeping victory over the reputedly invincible Swiss at the battle of Marignano. - He forced a treaty with the Pope, took control of Milan and forced Queen Margaret to flee from Scotland
What was the Treaty of London (1518)
- A treaty of ‘perpetual peace’ led by Wolsey that ended England’s isolation by signing an agreement of peace with over 20 European powers - It was seen as a diplomatic, political and moral triumph - European rulers such as Francis I, Maximillian and Charles V signed
Why was the treaty of London significant/successful?
- It avoided costly warfare - Wolsey led a treaty of ‘collective security’, which had never been attempted previously - Made Henry’s position more prestigious, which was an aim in his Foreign Policy
Why was the Treaty of London a failure?
- The Treaty did not last, with the Hapsburg-Valois war breaking out in 1521 - England was still controlled by the more powerful nations of Europe
What was the Field of the Cloth of Gold?
- in 1520, Francis I and Henry VIII met up for two weeks in an event of power and prestige - The meeting ended on the 25th of June, with little achieved - The event lost some value in Henry’s eyes, as he lost a wrestling match with Francis - The event cost roughly £15,000
What did the Field of the Cloth of Gold achieve?
- Very little in terms of foreign policy - It was, however, a glorious opportunity of recognition for Henry - A treaty was signed with Charles V a few weeks later (Francis I enemy)
What was the Calais Conference?
An attempt to prevent war between France and Spain over Milan.
What was the Treaty of Bruges?
- This was a treaty that Wolsey organised between Henry and Charles V - Henry met with Charles to form an alliance
Why did Henry choose to ally with Charles V?
- He could improve his relations with the Pope - He beleived that he could gain more territory in France - Part of the deal was a marriage alliance of Mary, Henry’s youngest daughter and Charles.
Why and when did the Second French war begin?
- Francis I declared war on Charles V in April 1521, by invading Calais
What did Wolsey do to try and bring peace?
- He held a peace conference that the empire and France attended
What did Wolsey do in secret with the Second French war?
- Henry wanted to join the conflict, so Wolsey knew he had to pick a side - Wolsey double-dealed, meeting Charles at Bruges when out for the Calais Conference. - They agreed to declare war on France if no peace plans were made by Francis I
What was this secret meeting known as?
- Treaty of Bruges - It would happen after France paid the next installation of the French Pension
What war was Charles more invested in instead of the Second French War?
- He was more invested in the conflict in Northern Italy, as he had just recovered Milan. - English troops were sent to Picardy, but a number of the emperor’s troops lacked
How did English fortunes increase in the war in 1523?
The Duke of Bourbon, a powerful English nobleman, raised his army against Francis. Plans were quickly drawn up to have a three sided attack on Paris by the Dukes of Suffolk, Bourbon and imperial forces from the Netherlands.
What caused Henry to lose interest in the War vs France (1523)?
- Many abandoned their forces in Paris, causing Henry to lose interest and Wolsey to go back to negotiating peace.
Why did Henry and Wolsey look to secure an alliance with France in 1525?
- the treaty with Charles was not giving Henry as much as he hoped for, so Wolsey looked to form an alliance with France
What was the Battle of Pavia?
- A crucial moment in the conflict between Francis and Charles, in which Francis was captured and held captive
What did Henry suggest to Charles after the battle of Pavia?
He suggested a joint invasion upon France to achieve territorial gains, but Charles disagreed.
What did Charles’ disagreement mean for Henry?
- His ego was bruised and he had to back down - His resentment towards the emperor was reinforced when Charles rejected the marriage contract - Wolsey’s domestic prestige never really recovered from this
Why did the alliance with Charles V fail?
- Charles V opposed the annulment between Catherine and Henry - Francis had been heavily defeated by the imperial army, making Charles stronger and in less need of an ally - Charles V rejected Henry’s proposal for an attack on France to capitalise on Pavia - Charles cancelled his marriage that he agreed in the Treaty of Bruges
What was the Treaty of the More?
It was a Treaty signed in August 1525 with France.
What confirmed the shift in diplomacy towards the French after the Treaty of the More?
- The Anti-Hapsburg League (League of Cognac) - England gave financial aid to this
When did Wolsey become more committed to the Anti-Hapsburg League?
- After the Sack of Rome
What was the Sack of Rome?
A war in which the Pope was taken prisoner, against the League of Cognac.
What was the Treaty of Westminster?
- An agreement between England and France whereby England financially supported France to invade Charles V in Northern Italy to free the pope. - There was also a marriage agreement between Mary and Francis
What was the Treaty of Amiens?
- An Anglo-French agreement to attack Charles V
What did Henry do in 1528 to attack Charles V? Why did this make some people unhappy?
- Placed a trade embargo on Burgandy (just like his Father had done) - Charles V kept some English merchants hostage in Burgundy - This also caused economic difficulty after a poor harvest in England, and was not long after the amicable grant which cause Henry a lot of trouble.
What was the ‘Ladies Peace’, and what did this cause for Henry?
- 1529, also known as the Treaty of Cambrai - Negotiated by Margaret of Austria and Louise of Savoy, and was a settle to the conflict between the Pope and the HRE - This settlement did not involve Henry, leaving him diplomatically isolated.
What control did the English have in Ireland?
- Pale district - Land surrounding Dublin
Who was the dominant Irish nobleman at this time? What role did he have?
- Gerald Fitzgerald, ninth Earl of Kildare - He was both an English courtier and a servant servant of the crown, but also the most powerful of the Gaelic chiefs
What caused the relationship between the King and Fitzgerald to break down?
The revival of the Geraldine-Butler feud and the break from Rome
When was Kildare dismissed and what problems did this cause?
- 1534, leading to a major rebellion led by his son, Thomas Fitzgerald. - This was supressed with difficulty and great expense
What steps were taken after Kildare’s dismissal?
- There was an attempt to refashion Irish government, but this failed utterly - It required royal government through an English-born deputy, supported by a substantial military presence.
What made the situation in Ireland worse?
- The resentment amongst the Gaelic lords - Two nobles, Con O’Neill and Manus O’Donnell invaded the Pale in 1539 - The government eventually regained control, by establishing Ireland as a separate Kingdom, with English laws but Gaelic lordship. - The government did not have enough resources to carry through with these reforms, and the situation got more complex when there was a difference in opinion upon the religious reforms
What can be said about the final years of Henry VIII’s foreign policy?
- The 1530s saw Henry attempt to minimise the response of foreign powers to the Break with Rome - However, in the 1540s, Henry turned to a more aggressive foreign policy, similar to that seen in the early years of his reign
What was the battle of Haddon-Rig?
- After James V refused to attend religious talks with Henry VIII, England sent a small army into the Scottish Borders. - This army was defeated on 24th August 1542, by George Gordon, Earl of Huntly.
What was the battle of Solway Moss?
- Tensions were growing with Henry appointing himself Head of the Church of England - Henry asked to meet James V of Scotland, recently made king after Queen Margaret’s death - England invaded Scotland in 1542, forcing the to demands they could not possibly have met - This led to the Battle of Solway Moss, a heavy defeat for the Scottish
What happened shortly after the Battle of Solway Moss?
- James V died of fever - This left his one-week-old daughter Mary (Queen of Scots) on the throne
What position did the Battle of Solway Moss leave Henry in?
- Henry was in a great position to exploit the Scots weakness, however it has been argued that he did not take full advantage of this. - Henry’s main interest at this time was an invasion of France - This led Henry, instead of invading, to create parliamentary pressure as a means of securing his Scottish objectives
What was the ‘rough wooing’?
- A policy in which Henry VIII aimed to secure a marriage alliance between his son, Edward VI and Mary Queen of Scots - He also wanted to get rid of the ‘Auld Alliance’ that formed between Scotland and France - After the Scottish Parliament refused to ratify the Treaty of Greenwich, Henry sent forces to attack Edinburgh, Leith and St Andrews, burning down many buildings.
On what counts can Henry be criticised on his Scottish Foreign Policy?
1 - He neglected the opportunity to secure his policy by military force when he had the opportunity in 1542 2 - He failed to heed Sadler’s warnings about Scottish hostility to his intentions 3 - His ordering of Hertford into Scotland was simply a matter of retaliation. This gave no though to possible strategic objectives and simply served to antagonise the Scots further.
What was Henry’s main concern in foreign policy in 1544 and what evidence is there to support this?
- To facilitate a French invasion and gain military glory in France - The size of his army in 1544 reflects this - He set off to attack the French himself, despite his ill health
Who did Henry form an alliance in to facilitate the French invasion in 1544?
The emperor
What did Henry realise about the attack on France in the 3rd French war? What did he do instead?
- He had committed, with the imperial alliance to Paris, but this he soon realised that this would be futile. - The English Army instead confined itself to the vicinity of Calais
What did the English Army lose and gain in the third French War?
- Unsuccessfully besieged Montreuil - Captured Boulogne under the supervision of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk
What happened on the day the Henry besieged Boulogne?
- Charles V and Francis I made a peace treaty at Crepy. - One of the agreements was that Francis’ youngest son would marry Charles younger daughter Maria.
What happened after the fall of Boulogne?
- The French managed to take land in the Isle of Wight and Sussex, but neither had the stregth or finances to engage in all-out-war - In 1546, Henry and Francis made a weary peace, in which Henry was promised a pension until 1551.
What was the Treaty of Ardres?
- 1546 - Agreed that if the French paid all of the outstanding French Pensions, Boulogne would be returned - Henry knew that this was unlikely
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry was successful in pursuing an active foreign policy against the French?
- 1513 - Battle of the Spurs lead to the capture of Therouanne and Tournai. - Agreed the first French Pension - 1544 - Boulogne captured and kept under the Treaty of Ardres (1546). - Another French pension was secured
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry was unsuccessful in pursuing an active foreign policy against the French?
- 1512 - embarrassment in his first expedition to France - Tournai sold back to French for less that it cost - Lost first French pension - 1522-23 - costly failed campaigns in France, caused unrest at home through Amicable Grant taxation - 1544 - hugely expensive war at the cost of £2 million, with little achieved to show for it. - 1545 - French landed counter invasion in Isle of Wight and sent forces to support the Scots in a ventual peace treaty
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry was successful in his aim to gain honour and glory?
- 1520 - Francis I was respected at the Field of the Cloth of Gold - Charles V - treaty of Bruges
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aim to gain honour and glory?
- Field of the Cloth of Gold achieved little - Charles V - Henry undid the success of the the Treaty of Bruges by crassly trying to used Charles’ success at Pavia (1525) as a springboard to take Northern France - This led to the marriage alliance with Princess Mary being broke off. - Never really gained success against Charles or Francis
What evidence is there that Henry was successful in his aim to protect the security of England’s boarders
- 1513 Battle of Flodden - 1542 Battle of Solway Moss - 1536 - Irish rebellion crushed and the country brought to heel in the 1540s
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aim to protect the security of England’s borders?
- ‘Rough Wooing’ - led to the powerful Earl of Arran withdrew his support and lost the chance to unite the kingdom, instead enraging Scots and strengthening the Auld Alliance
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was successful in his aim to maintain good trade links with the Netherlands?
- They remained on largely strong terms throughout Henry’s reign, much as it had been during the reign of Henry VII
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aim to maintain good trade links with the Netherlands?
- England’s offer to support France in a war against Charles V in 1528 led to a trade embargo, which included all trade with the Netherlands - This led to unrest and near rebellion in Southern England
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was successful in his aim to be a European Peacemaker
- 1518 - Treaty of London, established general European peace
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aims to be a European peacemaker?
- After 1533 - isolated in Europe after Break with Rome, was in no position to act as a peacemaker - 1539 - Pope attempting to organise a crusade against Henry
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry was successful in his aims to secure the Tudor dynasty?
- Marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1509 produced a female heir in Mary - Marriage to Anne Boleyn produced a female heir in Elizabeth - Marriage to Jayne Seymour produced Edward VI - male heir
What evidence is there to suggest that Henry VIII was unsuccessful in his aim to secure the Tudor dynasty?
- Marriage to Catherine of Aragon failed to produce a male heir. Mary was made illegitimate with Succession Act - 1540 - marriage with Anne of Cleves - divorce within months - no new heir and foreign alliance undone - His eventual heir, Edward VI, did not come from a foreign marriage - 1543 - Edward’s arranged marraige to Mary Queen of Scots was not ratified by the Scottish Parliament and the unification of the two kingdoms fails.
