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Biology 🌱 > Health, Disease And Development Of Medicines > Flashcards

Health, Disease And Development Of Medicines Flashcards

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1
Q

How do viruses cause damage?

A
  • Move into cells and make many copies
  • This leads to cell bursting, causing the person to feel ill
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2
Q

How do bacteria cause damage?

A

They produce toxins that damage cells

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3
Q

What are the four types of pathogen?

A
  • Bacteria
  • Virus
  • Fungi
  • Protist
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4
Q

What are the main effects of cholera? Type of pathogen?

A
  • Bacteria
  • Diarrhoea
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5
Q

What are the main effects of malaria? Type of pathogen?

A
  • Protist
  • Causes damage to blood and liver
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6
Q

What are the main effects of HIV? Type of pathogen?

A
  • Virus
  • Destroys white blood cells, leading to the onset of AIDS
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7
Q

What are the main effects of tuberculosis? Type of pathogen?

A
  • Bacteria
  • Causes lung damage, coughing
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8
Q

What are the main effects of Ebola? Type of pathogen?

A
  • Virus
  • Causes haemorrhagic fever (fever with severe bleeding)
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9
Q

What are the main effects of helicobacter? Type of pathogen?

A
  • Bacteria
  • Can lead to stomach ulcers
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10
Q

What are the main effects of Chalera ash dieback? Type of pathogen?

A
  • Fungi
  • Leaf loss and bark lesions
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11
Q

How is cholera spread? How can the spread be reduced?

A

Spread - by water

Can be reduced by - boiling water before drinking, washing hands after using the toilet

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12
Q

How is tuberculosis spread? How can the spread be reduced?

A

Spread - airborne

Can be reduced by - ventilate buildings, isolate infected people, diagnose quickly and treat with antibiotics, vaccination

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13
Q

How is malaria spread? How can the spread be reduced?

A

Spread - by animal vectors

Can be reduced by - prevent mosquitos biting people

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14
Q

How is Chalara ash dieback spread? How can the spread be reduced?

A

Spread - airborne

Can be reduced by - removing infected plants

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15
Q

How are stomach ulcers spread? How can the spread be reduced?

A

Spread - oral transmission

Can be reduced by - cook food to kill bacteria, washing hands before preparing food

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16
Q

How is Ebola spread? How can the spread be reduced?

A

Spread - bodily fluids

Can be reduced by - isolating infected people, wear protective clothing

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17
Q

What is the process of the lytic cycle?

A
  • Virus binds to host cell and injects its genetic material
  • Virus using the cells machinery to make viral proteins
  • These proteins make virus particles which are released in lysis (when the host cell bursts)
  • The new viruses go on to inject other cells and the cycle repeats
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18
Q

What is the process of the lysogenic cycle?

A
  • The virus uses restriction enzymes to insert its DNA into the host cells DNA
  • The host cell replicates and the viral DNA is also copied in this process
  • Then the lytic cycle begins
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19
Q

What are some physical barriers of plants?

A
  • Thick cellulose cell wall – impermeable to many pathogens
  • Thick waxy cuticle
  • Layer of bark
  • Closed stomata
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20
Q

What are some chemical barriers of plants?

A
  • Poisons in their cells to deter pests that try to eat them
  • Chemicals that kill pathogens such as bacteria and fungi
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21
Q

How can plant chemical barriers used in medicine?

A
  • Antimicrobial compounds can be used in drugs such as antibiotics
22
Q

What type of pathogen is chlamydia?

A

Bacterium

23
Q

What are some visible symptoms of plant disease?

A
  • Overgrowth or under-development of a part of a plant e.g. swelling on roots or smaller leaves the usual
  • Dark spots or discolouration on leaves
  • Death of parts of a plant or leaf loss
24
Q

What must be considered during distribution analysis?

A
  • How many plants are affected? If all are it’s probably environmental factor
  • Where are diseased plants found? All in one place or over a large area?
  • Is just one species of plant affected or several? It may be a species specific pathogen
  • Do the symptoms of the plant change over time?
25
Q

What techniques are used in the lab to identify a disease?

A
  • Microscopic examination of plant material for signs of pathogens
  • Antibodies to test for the presence of a pathogen
  • Genetic testing to identify any pathogens found
  • Soil sample testing to rule out soil factors
  • Trying to grow pathogens on nutrient medium (agar jelly) to produce a large sample for identification
26
Q

What are some human physical barriers and how do they protect against pathogens?

A

Mucus - goblet cells create mucus which trap pathogens before they reach the lungs

Cilia - on ciliated epithelial cells, move in a wave like motion to move mucus from lungs to back of throat

Unbroken skin - too thick for most pathogens to get through

27
Q

What are some human chemical defences and how do they protect against pathogens?

A

Lysozyme - enzyme in tears saliva and mucus, kills bacteria by digesting the cell walls

Hydrochloric acid - kills bacteria in food and drink

28
Q

How do phagocytes damage pathogens?

A
  • Surround, bind to and engulf them
    
  • The enzymes in the phagocytes break down the pathogen
29
Q

What are the stages of lymphocytes responding to pathogens?

A
  • Each pathogen has a unique antigen on its surface
  • A lymphocyte with an antibody that fits the antigen is activated
  • Once activated, it divides many times to produce clones of identical lymphocytes
  • Some produce many antibodies which stick the pathogens together, so its easier for phagocytes to engulf them
  • Other lymphocytes stay in the blood as memory lymphocytes, to respond immediately if the same pathogen returns
30
Q

What is the process of vaccination?

A
  • Vaccine contains antigens from the pathogen, often dead or weakened pathogens
  • Lymphocytes produce antibodies against pathogen and memory lymphocytes
  • If they get the real pathogen, memory lymphocytes will give a rapid second response
  • So they’re unlikely to become ill
31
Q

What are the advantages of immunisation?

A
  • Immunity is produced without being ill
  • Immunity lasts a while, often for life
  • If most people are immune, the few that are unvaccinated are also less likely to catch the disease (herd immunity)
32
Q

What are the disadvantages of immunisation?

A
  • Some people suffer from mild reaction (e.g. swelling soreness)
  • Very rarely, a person has a major harmful reaction
33
Q

Why can antibiotics only be used to treat bacterial infections?

A

They inhibit cell processes in the bacteria but not in the host organism (which viruses use)

34
Q

What are some aseptic techniques when working with micro organisms?

A
  • Sterilising dishes and culture media in an autoclave or UV light
  • Sterilising inoculating hoops in a flame
  • Sealing the lid of Petri dishes with tape (but not completely to allow anaerobic bacteria to grow)
35
Q

How do you investigate the effect of antibiotics?

A
  • Soak filter paper discs in variety of solutions
  • Prepare petri dish with agar gel and sterilise
  • Use sterile forceps to place discs on the plate and label
  • Do same with control disc
  • Tape lid to base of dish without completely stealing it
  • Incubate for a few days at 25° C
  • Measure radius of zone of inhibition and calculate area (pi x r² )
36
Q

What are the stages of drug testing?

A

Preclinical testing – tested using computer models and human cells grown in the lab then live animals, tests the efficacy and side effects

Clinical trials: Stage one – tested on healthy volunteers in a small dose to test if it’s harmful

Clinical trials: Stage two – tested on patients to find the most effective dose, some are given a placebo, may be single-blind or double-blind trial

37
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies produced?

A
  • Take B lymphocytes from mice - stimulated to produce a specific antibody, but don’t divide
  • Combine with tumour cells - dont make antibodies but divide rapidly
  • These form a hybridoma cell, which have both characteristics
38
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy tests?

A
  • A hormone called HCG is in pregnant womens’ urine
  • The first section of the stick has mobile antibodies, specific to hCG, attached to blue beads
  • The second section has stationary antibodies also specific to hCG, that are stuck down to the stick
  • You urinate on the first section
  • If HCG is present, it will bind to the mobile antibodies
  • They are carried in the flow of liquid to the second section where they will bind to the stationary antibodies
  • As all the blue beads are collected here, a blue line will be visible, indicating pregnancy
39
Q

How are antibodies used in locating cancer cells?

A
  • They can be modified so they will bind to the antigens on cancerous cells
  • When they bind to the cancer cells, they clump them together
  • Making it easier to identify cancerous tumour which can then be treated or moved
40
Q

How are antibodies used to locate the position of blood clots?

A
  • They are modified so they will bind to the molecule you’re looking for
  • They are also bound to a fluorescent dye
  • The antibodies will bind to the molecules if they’re in the sample and the dye is observed
41
Q

In what ways can monoclonal antibodies treat cancer?

A

By carrying drugs – they can only bind to cancer cells, reducing risk to healthy cells and meaning less drug needed

Specifically bind to tumour markers to stimulate an immune response

42
Q

What is the advantage of using monoclonal antibodies to target specific cells?

A

They can only bind to specific cells so healthy cells are not affected

43
Q

What is the calculation for BMI?

A

Weight (kg) / Height² (m)

44
Q

How do you calculate waist : hip ratio?

A

Waist / Hip

45
Q

What are some lifestyle changes people can make to treat CVD?

A
  • Take more exercise
  • Reduce the amount of saturated fat and salt in their diet
  • Stopping smoking
  • Reducing alcohol intake
46
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of lifestyle changes in treating CVD?

A

Advantages:
- No side-effects
- May reduce chances of getting other health conditions
- Cheapest option

Disadvantages:
- Takes a while to work
- May not be effective

47
Q

What are the types of medication used to treat CVD?

A

Statins - reduce cholesterol

Beta blockers - lower blood pressure

48
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of medication for CVD?

A

Advantages:
- Start working immediately
- Cheaper and less risky than surgery

Disadvantages:
- Need to be taken regularly for awhile
- Some side-effects (kidney failure for statins)
- Not suitable for some people (with medications, with liver disease or pregnant)

49
Q

What are the types of surgery for treating CVD?

A

Stent - wire frame inserted into blocked or narrowed arteries

Heart bypass - new blood vessel is inserted to bypass blocked coronary arteries

50
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of stents to treat CVD?

A

Advantages:
- Lasts a long time
- Quick recovery time
- No general anaesthetic needed

Disadvantages:
- Risks during operation, infection or heart attack
- Risk of blood clot near the stent

51
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of hearts bypasses for treating CVD?

A

Advantages:
- Long-term solution

Disadvantages:
- Risk of infection in surgery
- Surgery is expensive

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