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Biology 🌱 > Animal Control And Homeostasis > Flashcards

Animal Control And Homeostasis Flashcards

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1
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical messages produced by endocrine glands that target organs in the body

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2
Q

What hormones does the pituitary gland secrete?

A
  • TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone
  • ADH, antidiuretic hormone
  • FSH, follicle stimulating hormone
  • LH, luteinising hormone
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3
Q

What hormones does the hypothalamus secrete?

A
  • TRH, thyrotropin-releasing hormone
  • CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone
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4
Q

What hormone does the thyroid gland secrete?

A

Thyroxine

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5
Q

What hormones do the pancreas secrete?

A
  • Insulin
  • Glucagon
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6
Q

What hormone do the testis secrete?

A

Testosterone

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7
Q

What hormone does the adrenal glands secrete?

A

Adrenaline

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8
Q

What hormones do the ovaries secrete?

A
  • Oestrogen
  • Progesterone
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9
Q

What is the target organ for TRH and CRH?

A

The pituitary gland

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10
Q

What is the target organ for TSH?

A

The thyroid gland

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11
Q

What is the target organ for ADH?

A

The kidneys

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12
Q

What is the target organ for FSH and LH?

A

The ovaries

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13
Q

What are the target organs for insulin and glucagon?

A
  • Liver
  • Muscle
  • Adipose tissue
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14
Q

What are the target organs for adrenaline?

A

Various organs (e.g. heart, liver, skin)

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15
Q

What is the target organ for progesterone?

A

The uterus

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16
Q

What are the target organs for oestrogen?

A
  • Ovaries
  • Uterus
  • Pituitary gland
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17
Q

What are the target organs for testosterone?

A

Male reproductive organs

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18
Q

What is the difference between hormones and nerves?

A
  • Hormones usually have a long lived effect, nerves have a short term effect
  • Hormones take longer to work, nerve impulses work very quickly
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19
Q

How does adrenaline affect their body?

A
  • Increases heart rate
  • Constricts some blood vessels to make blood pressure higher
  • Dilates other blood vessels to increase blood flow to muscles
  • Causes the liver to convert glycogen to glucose which is released into the blood
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20
Q

How does increasing heart rate help the body in a ‘fight or flight’ situation?

A
  • Heart beating faster means oxygen is being carried around the body faster
  • This allows faster respiration in muscle cells
  • Which means energy is released for cell contraction faster
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21
Q

What are the stages of the menstrual cycle?

A
  • Menstruation, days 1-5, the breakdown of the uterus lining
  • Uterus building, days 6-13, the lining of the uterus is gradually built up
  • Ovulation, day 14, the release of an egg from an ovary
  • Fertile window, days 14-16, when fertilisation is most likely to take place
  • Uterus building, days 17-28, the lining of the uterus continues to build up
  • If fertilisation occurs then the uterus lining is maintained and menstruation doesn’t happen
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22
Q

What are the different types of hormonal contraception?

A
  • Hormone pills
  • Hormone implants
  • Hormone injections
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23
Q

How does hormonal contraception work?

A
  • Release hormones to prevent ovulation
  • Thickens mucus at the cervix which prevents sperm from passing
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24
Q

What are the different types of barrier contraception?

A
  • Condoms
  • Diaphragm
  • Caps
  • Sponges
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25
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of hormonal contraception?

A

Advantages
- More than 99% effective
- Can reduce the risk of certain cancers
Disadvantages
- Possible side effects such as changes in weight, mood and blood pressure
- Do not protect against STI’s

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26
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of condoms?

A

Advantages
- 98% effective is used properly
- Quick and easy to use
- Protect against STIs
Disadvantages
- Risk of tearing or ripping
- Not as effective as hormonal contraceptives

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27
Q

Why is it important to control body temperature?

A

Enzymes in the main organs are most active at this temperature

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28
Q

How does the structure of skin help thermoregulation?

A
  • Releases sweat when warm to lose heat by evaporation
    - Contract when cold to pull hair upright, this traps an insulating layer of air
  • Vasodilation/vasoconstriction changes blood flow through surface capillaries depending on temperature
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29
Q

How does the dermis of the skin help cool the body?

A
  • Sweat glands in the dermis secrete sweat onto the the epidermis, this evaporates and cools the body down
  • Muscles in the dermis relax which allows hair follicles to lie flat, this means there’s a thinner layer of insulating air trapped against the epidermis
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30
Q

What is the cause of type 1 diabetes?

A
  • The immune system has damaged the persons insulin-secreting pancreatic cells
  • This means they do not produce insulin
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31
Q

How do you control type 1 diabetes?

A
  • Inject insulin into the fat just below the skin
  • They must work out the right amount of insulin to inject so the blood glucose concentration stays within safe limits
32
Q

What is the cause of type 2 diabetes?

A
  • The person does produce insulin but their liver and muscle cells have become resistant to it
33
Q

How do you control type 2 diabetes?

A
  • Most people can control their blood glucose concentration by eating lower sugar foods exercise
  • Medication is sometimes needed
34
Q

How do you work out BMI?

A

BMI = weight (kg) / height ² (m)

35
Q

How does negative feedback control thyroxine levels?

A
  • Low concentration of a thyroxine in blood stimulate corrective mechanism
  • Hypothalamus releases TRH which causes the pituitary gland to release TSH
  • This causes the thyroid gland to release more thyroxine so blood levels return to normal
  • Normal thyroxine levels inhibit TRH and TSH so less thyroxine is produced and normal blood levels are maintained
36
Q

How do FSH LH oestrogen and progesterone interact to control the menstrual cycle?

A
  • FSH causes a follicle to mature in the ovary
  • As the egg matures, the follicle produces oestrogen
  • Oestrogen grows the lining of the uterus wall
  • Oestrogen inhibits FSH
  • When oestrogen rises enough it causes a surge in LH
  • LH causes ovulation from the follicle
  • The ruptured follicle becomes the corpus luteum
  • This produces oestrogen and progesterone
  • Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH
  • Progesterone maintains the uterus lining
  • If the egg has not been fertilised corpus luteum dies and progesterone levels drop, this causes menstruation
  • FSH is no longer inhibited so can be secreted from a pituitary gland again
37
Q

When is IVF used?

A
  • Issue with the quality of the man’s sperm
  • Woman has blocked oviducts
38
Q

How does IVF work?

A
  • FSH and LH are given to the mother to stimulate the maturation of several eggs in the ovary
  • The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised in a dish
  • The fertilised eggs developed into embryos
  • When the embryos are tiny balls of cells, one or two are inserted into the mother’s uterus
39
Q

When is clomifene used?

A

When a woman can’t ovulate

40
Q

How does clomifene work?

A
  • Stimulates ovulation
  • Blocks the action of oestrogen as negative feedback on LH, so more LH is released in a surge
41
Q

What temperature is the human body kept at and why?

A

37° C because it is the temperature that enzymes work best in

42
Q

How does thermoregulation work if the body temperature rises?

A
  • The hypothalamus detects the rise and causes a response
  • More blood flows near skin surface
  • Sweat glands release more sweat onto skin surface to evaporate
  • Sebaceous glands produce oil that helps sweat spread out over skin
  • These increase the transfer of energy to surroundings to decrease body temperature
43
Q

How does thermoregulation work body temperature falls?

A
  • Hypothalamus detectable and causes a body response
  • Less blood flows near skin surface
  • Sweat glands stop producing sweat
  • Body hair raised by erector muscles in the dermis which trap a layer of insulating air (causing goosebumps)
  • Skeletal muscles contract rapidly, these need energy from respiration which is then released as heat
  • Reduces transfer of energy to surroundings
44
Q

What is vasoconstriction?

A
  • Cold environment
  • Arteriole (surface capillary) becomes constricted and gets narrower
  • Shunt vessel (deep skin blood vessel) dilates
  • Warm blood is kept deeper in the skin so less heat is transferred to air
45
Q

What is vasodilation?

A
  • Warm environment
  • Arteriole (surface capillary) becomes dilated
  • Shunt vessel (deep skin blood vessel) narrows
  • Increases flow of warm blood near skin so heat can transfer easily to air
46
Q

Why is osmoregulation important?

A
  • To keep the concentrations the same inside the cells as around them
  • Protects cells by stopping too much water from entering or leaving them by osmosis
47
Q

What is a hypotonic cell?

A

When there is a more dilute solution outside the cell, it causes them to swell then burst

48
Q

What is a hypertonic cell?

A

When there is a more concentration solution outside the cell, it causes them to shrivel

49
Q

How does the body digest proteins?

A

They are broken down by protease enzymes into amino acids in the stomach and small intestine

50
Q

How is urea produced?

A

The process of breaking down excess amino acids produces ammonia which is immediately converted to urea

51
Q

How is urea excreted from the body?

A
  • Urea is released from the liver cells into the bloodstream
  • It is transported to the kidneys where the blood is filtered
  • The urea is then passed out the body in urine
52
Q

How does the body respond to a rise in blood glucose concentration?

A
  • The pancreas detects a rise
  • It increases the secretion of insulin and decreases secretion of glucagon
  • Insulin causes muscle and liver cells to remove glucose from the body and store it is glycogen for storage
  • This causes the blood glucose concentration to fall
53
Q

How does the body respond to a fall in blood glucose concentration?

A
  • The pancreas detects a fall
  • It decreases secretion of insulin and increases secretion of glucagon
  • Glucagon causes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose and release it into the blood
  • Blood glucose concentration rises
54
Q

How do you work out waist:hip ratio?

A

Waste measurement/
Hip measurement

Should be:
Under 0.85 for women
Under 1 for men

55
Q

What is the role of the renal vein?

A

Carries deoxygenated/cleaned blood away from the kidneys, back to the circulatory system

56
Q

What is the role of the renal arteries?

A

Carries oxygenated blood from the body to the kidneys

57
Q

What is the role of ureters?

A

Carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder

58
Q

What is the role of the urethra?

A

The tube that carries urine out of the body

59
Q

What are nephrons?

A

Microscopic tubules responsible for cleaning the blood

 Each kidney contains over a million

60
Q

What is the first stage in the kidney?

A

Filtration:

  • Blood passes through the glomerulus (small knot of many capillaries)
  • The blood is under high pressure at the start which helps the ultrafiltration
  • Small molecules, including water ions, are passed into the Bowman’s capsule then the nephron tubule
  • Large molecules, such as blood proteins, cannot filter so stay in the blood
61
Q

What is the second stage in the kidneys?

A

Selective reabsorption:

  • The kidneys must reabsorbed the molecules which are needed
62
Q

What is stage three in the kidneys?

A

The formation of urine:

  • The molecules that are not selectively reabsorbed continue along the nephron tubule as urine
63
Q

Which molecules are absorbed in selective reabsorption?

A
  • Glucose
  • As much water as the body needs to maintain constant water level in blood plasma
  • As many ions of the body needs to maintain a constant balance of mineral ions in blood plasma
64
Q

Where does selective reabsorption take place?

A
  • The first convoluted tubule
  • The loop of Henle (where most of the water is reabsorbed)
  • The second convoluted tubule
65
Q

How does the body respond to low concentration of water in blood plasma?

A
  • The pituitary gland secretes more ADH
  • More ADH makes the collecting ducts more permeable
  • So more water is reabsorbed from the kidney tubule back into the blood
  • A small volume of concentrated urine is produced
66
Q

How does the body respond to high concentrations of water in the blood plasma?

A
  • The pituitary gland secretes less ADH
  • Less ADH makes the collecting ducts less permeable
  • So less water is reabsorbed from the tubule back into the blood
  • A large volume of dilute urine is produced
67
Q

What does dialysis fluid contain?

A
  • A glucose concentration similar to a normal level in blood
  • A mineral ions concentration similar to a normal level in blood
68
Q

How does dialysis work?

A
  • Unfiltered blood that is high in urea is taken from the arm
  • It is mixed with blood thinners to prevent clotting and then pumped into the dialysis machine
  • The blood and dialysis fluid are separated by partially permeable membrane
  • There is a large concentration gradient so the urea diffuses out of the blood into the fluid
69
Q

Why does the dialysis fluid contain a similar concentration of useful substances as the blood?

A

So the dialysis fluid and blood of the same concentration and no glucose or mineral ions are lost

70
Q

What are the advantages of dialysis?

A
  • Greatly reduces the levels of urea
  • No overall change in blood glucose levels
  • The correct water and ion balance are maintained or restored
71
Q

What are the disadvantages of dialysis?

A
  • Requires highly specialised and extensive machinery
  • The patient must be connected to the machine often and for long periods at a time
72
Q

What is the problem with kidney transplants?

A
  • The antigens on the transplanted kidney cells are different from the antigens on cells in the patient’s body
  • This causes the immune system to quickly form antibodies against the kidney (organ rejection)
73
Q

What are the two ways to prevent rejection?

A

Tissue typing:
- A kidney with antigens that are very similar to the patient is used

Immuno-suppressant drugs:
- These must be taken for the rest of their lives, they reduce the immune response against the donor kidney

74
Q

What is the disadvantage of tissue typing?

A
  • Possible long waits for transplants
  • Patients must undergo dialysis until then and could die before a match is found
75
Q

What is the disadvantage of immuno-suppressant drugs?

A

They also suppress the immune response against pathogens which increases the risk of infection

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