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Health and Disease Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Health definition

A

State of physical and mental wellbeing

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2
Q

What are downsides of being ill?

A
  • Poorer quality of life
  • Reduced life span
  • Suffering for patient and family
  • Expensive healthcare
  • Less contribution to society
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3
Q

What are communicable diseases?

A

Disease caused by microorganisms called PATHOGENS which can spread between individuals and animals

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4
Q

What are non-communicable diseases?

A

A disease NOT cause by pathogens, but often influenced by lifestyle factors, such as diet, stress, etc which in some cases are causes of non communicable diseases

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5
Q

How can different diseases interact?

A

One disease could damage the immune system, so another disease could infect the host and the host would struggle to fight the disease and could face death

Viruses living in cells can trigger cancers

Immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen can trigger allergies such as asthma

Severe ill health effects can lead to depression and other mental illnesses

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6
Q

What are risk factors?

A

Aspects of a person’s lifestyle which are linked to an increased rate of a disease, but exposure to a risk factor does not GUARANTEE that an individual will suffer from said disease

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7
Q

What are some risk factor examples?

A
  • Diet
  • Smoking (lung cancer)
  • Obesity (type 2 diabetes)
  • Alcohol (liver disease)
  • Radiation (cancer)
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8
Q

What does sampling allow researchers to do?

A

Sapling allows researchers to conclude on information about a population without having to investigate every individual which is impossible to do accurately

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9
Q

Why do scientists often take health and lifestyle samples from populations?

A

To determine common RISK FACTORS for different diseases, which can inform others at potentially save lives

They often present their data in graphical and numerical forms to identify relationships between risk factors and certain diseases.

Correlations are also seen in SCATTER DIAGRAMS

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10
Q

How do cells in the body divide?

A

Mitosis

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11
Q

Why is mitosis useful?

A

Essential for growth and to replace cells that are damaged

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12
Q

What is cancer?

A

Cancer is a result of changes in the DNA of cells that lead to uncontrollable growth and division which causes tumours

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13
Q

What are benign tumours?

A

Growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane, and DO NOT INVADE other parts of the body

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14
Q

What are malignant tumours?

A

Malignant tumour cells are cancers - the cells invade neighbouring tissues and spread to different parts of the body forming secondary tumours

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15
Q

What are risk factors for cancer?

A
  • Obesity
  • Smoking
  • Radiation
  • Viral infection
  • Genetics
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16
Q

How do bacteria cause harm?

A

Once infected, reproduce rapidly and can affect hose by releasing toxins which damage tissue and make us feel ill

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17
Q

How can viruses cause harm?

A

Need a host to survive and reproduce, where they insert genetic material into host cells and the cell bursts when when many copies have been made which infects other cells and causes damage when toxins are secreted

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18
Q

What are pathogens

A

Microorganisms such as bacteria , viruses, protists or fungi that cause infectious disease in animals and plants

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19
Q

What are fungi?

A

Microorganisms which grow on living tissue and are more common in plants than in animals

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20
Q

What are protists?

A

Eukaryotic organisms, most of which aren’t pathogenic but the ones that are can be deadly, such as malaria. They often need a vector to transfer from one host to the next because they are PARASITIC

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21
Q

What is direct transmission?

A

Direct contact, sexual contact or placental transfer (from mother to foetus)

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22
Q

What is indirect transmission?

A

Vector, droplet infection and waterborne / food

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23
Q

What are some prevention methods from being infected?

A

Destroying vectors, simple hygiene methods, isolation and vaccines

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24
Q

What is measles?

A
  • Viral disease
  • Symptoms of fever and red skin rash
  • Extremely contagious, can cause brain damage
  • Spread through droplets from sneezes or coughs
  • No treatment for measles except for vaccination programmes to reduce effect
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25
Q

What is HIV?

A
  • Viral disease
  • Spread by sexual contact or exchange of bodily fluid such as blood
  • Symptoms are similar to flu at the beginning
  • Can cause AIDS if untreated

No cure for HIV, although use of antiretroviral drugs are used to slow or halt the progression to aids

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26
Q

What is TMV?

A
  • Viral disease
  • Symptoms are a mosaic pattern on leaves
  • Stunted growth causes by discoloration (lack of chlorophyll)
  • Spread by plants in direct contact with infected plant
  • No treatment but best method of control is good field hygiene
27
Q

What is salmonella?

A
  • Bacterial disease
  • Caused by food poisoning
  • Symptoms are fever, vomiting, cramps and diarrhoea
  • Chickens are vaccinated against salmonella and proper hygiene in kitchen can prevent spread
28
Q

What is gonorrhoea?

A
  • A Bacterial disease (STD)
  • Symptoms of a thick yellow discharge from sexual organs
  • Can cause infertility
  • Can be prevented by using protection or can be treated with antibiotics
29
Q

What is rose black spot?

A
  • Fungal disease
  • Symptoms include loss of leaves and purple and black spots on leaves
  • Spread through spores from fungus carried in wind or in water
  • Treated through fungicide chemicals and breeding plants with resistance
30
Q

What is malaria?

A
  • Protist disease
  • Symptoms include fever, shaking and is often fatal
  • Spread by a mosquito as a vector
  • Treatment includes combinations of drugs and controlling mosquito populations
31
Q

What is a vector?

A

An organism that does not cause a disease itself but which spreads infection by transferring pathogens from one host to another

32
Q

What are some non-specific human defence systems?

A
  • Skin (barrier)
  • Nose (hairs to trap particles)
  • Trachea and Bronchi (secretes mucus trapping pathogens)
  • Stomach (produces acid killing the pathogens)
33
Q

How do white blood cells defend against pathogens?

A

Phagocytosis, production of antibodies and production of antitoxins

34
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Where phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens. Enzymes are released to break down and destroy the pathogen

35
Q

What do lymphocytes do?

A

Produce ANTIBODIES which target specific antigens on the surface of the pathogen. This process can take days which gives the pathogen time to harm the body, which is why we keep memory cells in the body after an infection

Lymphocytes can also produce antitoxins to neutralise the effects of the toxin

36
Q

What are memory cells?

A

Lymphocytes that remain in the body after an initial infection with a SPECIFIC PATHOGEN, and if one is infected again in the future the memory cells recognise the antigens on the surface of the pathogen so produces antibodies quicker before its numbers increase

37
Q

How does vaccination prevent illness?

A

By providing artificial immunity through exposure to a dead or weakened version of a pathogen triggering an immune response, resulting in formation of memory cells which can make antibodies against it so future infections aren’t so dangerous

38
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

Where a large number of the population is vaccinated so unvaccinated people are less likely to be infected

39
Q

What is an antibiotic?

A

An antibiotic is a substance which kills bacteria or stops growth inside the body.

Specific bacteria need to be treated by specific antibiotics

40
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a vaccine

A

Adv -
Diseases that were once common are now fairly rare

Epidemics can be prevented if large numbers of the population are vaccinated

Disadv -
Vaccine doesn’t always give immunity

Can be side effects such as allergic reactions

41
Q

What is antibiotic resistance?

A

Where antibiotics have been overused, so many bacterial species have developed RESISTANCE to these antibiotics through random mutations in their DNA.

When someone is infected, this bacteria will survive treatment, and this bacteria’s population grows and then a RESISTANT STRAIN requires another antibiotic to kill the newly mutated bacteria

42
Q

How can we prevent resistant bacteria?

A
  • Avoid overuse of antibiotics
  • Antibiotics shouldn’t be used for viral infections
  • Antibiotics shouldn’t be used in non serious infections
  • Antibiotics should be reduced in industries such as agriculture
43
Q

Why can’t we use antibiotics against viruses?

A

Antibiotics cannot kill viral pathogens because viruses reproduce inside of cells, so to develop a drug that kills viruses without damaging the body’s cells is very difficult.

Instead painkillers and other medicines are used to treat the symptoms of disease but do not kill pathogens

44
Q

Where are drugs traditionally extracted from?

A

Plants and microbes

(however nowadays they are developed more by the pharmaceutical industry but many stull have plants as their source?

45
Q

Where does the heart drug digitalis originate from?

A

Foxgloves

46
Q

Where does aspirin originate from?

A

Willow

47
Q

Where does penicillin originate from?

A

Penicillium mould (discovered by Alexander Fleming)

48
Q

How did Alexander Fleming discover penicillin?

A
  • Left petri dishes contaminated by mould
  • Discovered bacteria did not grow around the mould
  • Concluded a chemical released by the mould killed the bacteria
  • This chemical was penicillin
49
Q

What is preclinical testing?

A

Done in a ;laboratory using cells, tissues and live animals to test safety of drugs on humans

50
Q

What are clinical trials?

A

Where VERY LOW doses of the drug is tested on healthy human volunteers and patients in need of cure.

If the drug is found to be safe, then the trials are carried out again to find the optimum dose for the drug

51
Q

What is a double blind trial?

A

Where a trial takes place for the drug as well as a placebo to act as a control to compare the results and make a conclusion

52
Q

What are the 4 stages of clinical trials?

A

Stage 1 - Lab stage (research, investment, animal testing, etc)

Stage 2 - Human testing (side effects, adjustments, etc)

Stage 3 - Drug licencing (long term risks, verification, etc)

Stage 4 - Distribution (in use and effective)

53
Q

What are the 3 stages of drug development?

A
  • Preclinical trials
  • Whole organism testing
  • Clinical trials
54
Q

What happens during whole organism testing?

A

Efficacy, toxicity and dosage

55
Q

How are hybridomas made?

A

Hybridomas are cells which are created by fusing together LYMPHOTYTES and MYELOMAS (tumour cells)

56
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies work?

A
  • Mice are injected with a pathogen to stimulate lymphocytes which produce specific antibodies
  • These lymphocytes combined with myeloma cells to create HYBRIDOMA CELL
  • Hybridoma shares characteristics of lymphocytes and myelomas (tumours)
  • So the hybridoma cell can both divide and produce the antibody
  • When cloned, large amounts of this antibody are produced, collected and purified for use
57
Q

What are some uses of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • Pregnancy tests
  • To measure composition of chemicals / hormones in blood
  • To locate cancer or pathogens
  • Locating sites of disease by binding to them with fluorescent dye
  • To treat disease, eg. Cancer by delivering radioactive substances to the cancer cells directly
58
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies work in pregnancy tests?

A
  • The monoclonal antibodies are specific to a hormone produced in pregnancy (HCG)
  • They will bind to the hormone and produce a colour change if pregnant
59
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used in diagnosis of disease?

A
  • Specific to antigens on pathogens, or blood clots or cancer cells
  • They pin the exact location and attach to the surface and indicate location (thus diagnosis) of disease
60
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies measure and monitor disease?

A
  • They can be used to detect not only presence of chemical / pathogen but QUANTITY, so can measure growth, etc
61
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used in research?

A
  • Scientists can detect specific molecules in tissues / cells because monoclonal antibodies can detect their presence
  • Scientists attach a fluorescent dye to help pin the location of these molecules
62
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies treat disease?

A
  • Can trigger immune cells to destroy them
  • Can be used to block receptors so cancers can STOP DIVIDING
  • Can carry toxins or radioactive substances for RADIOTHERAPY to the site of the tumour
63
Q

Advantages of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • Only bind to SPECIFIC molecules on diseased or damaged cell (DO NOT AFFECT HEALTHY CELLS)
  • Highly specific (can be produced to treat a range of conditions)
64
Q

Disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • Causes more side effects than expected
  • Use of mice is complicated, so human based development may be required
  • Expensive at the moment
  • Producing them is proving to be more difficult than expected

Biology (26 decks)

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