Han 9 Flashcards

1
Q

What makes discourse discourse?

A

John wants to visit his mother. Mr. Smith lives in a small village nearby. The vacuum cleaner didn’t work. The barber down the street couldn’t help. The last paper had been sold.

This fragment seems to have come into existence by a number of unrelated sentences being placed in random order. But if some words are changed, a piece of discourse is the result.

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2
Q

The example illustrates whot?

A

that the existence of connections between sentences is an important characteristic of discourse. The term connection is somewhat vague. Therefore, Robert de Beaugrande (1981) formulated seven criteria for textuality, that is, criteria that a sequence of sentences must meet in order to qualify as a discourse.

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3
Q

a. Cohesion

A

It is the connection that results when the interpretation of a textual element is dependent on another element in the text. In other words, cohesion (grammatical) concerns the ways in which the components of the surface text (the actual words) are mutually connected within a sequence.

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4
Q

Robert de Beaugrande (1981) formulated seven criteria for textuality, that is, criteria that a sequence of sentences must meet in order to qualify as a discourse.

A

1 Cohesion
2 Coherence
3 Intentionality
4 Acceptability
5 Informativeness
6 Situationality
7 Intertextuality

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5
Q

Cohesion

A

It is the connection that results when the interpretation of a textual element is dependent on another element in the text. In other words, cohesion (grammatical) concerns the ways in which the components of the surface text (the actual words) are mutually connected within a sequence.
Example:
1

(3) The store no longer sold porcelain figurines. It used to, the man behind the counter said, but they didn’t sell very well. Since the business has switched to plastic, sales were doing a lot better.
The interpretation of ‘It’ is dependent on that of ‘store’ just as ‘they’ is dependent on that of ‘porcelain figurines’. The meaning of ‘used to’ is dependent on ‘sold porcelain figurines’. The word ‘plastic’ can only be completely interpreted in relation to ‘porcelain figurines’. Cohesion refers to the connection that exists between elements in the text.

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6
Q

Coherenceترابط منطقي

A

It is the connection that is brought about by something outside the text. Thus, Coherence (lexical-semantic) concerns ways in which the components of the textual world (the concepts and relations which underlie the surface text) are mutually accessible and relevant.
This ‘something’ is usually knowledge which a listener or reader is assumed to have. The following example is not problematic in terms of cohesion even though the sentences hardly seem to be connected:
(4) The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set.
It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well.
At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another fact of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell.
This seemingly disjoined passage becomes coherent when certain knowledge of the world, i.e. knowledge of washing clothes, is applied to the text. The text then becomes easy to interpret.

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7
Q

Intentionality

A

It means that writers and speakers must have the conscious intention of achieving specific goals with their message (e.g. conveying information or arguing an option). According to this criterion, the sequence of words in the experimental poem Ota Boo (see handout 7) can only be called a discourse after an authorial intention has been assigned to it. When no intention is assigned, the word sequence becomes the equivalent of a page of random words not unlike the penmanship practice of elementary school pupils.

هذا يعني أنه يجب أن يكون لدى الكتاب والمتحدثين نية واعية لتحقيق أهداف محددة برسالتهم (مثل نقل المعلومات أو الجدال حول
خيار). وفقا لهذا المعيار، لا يمكن تسمية تسلسل الكلمات في القصيدة التجريبية أوتا بو (انظر النشرة 7) بالخطاب إلا بعد تعيين نية تأليفية لها. عندما لا يتم تعيين أي نية، يصبح تسلسل الكلمات مكافئا لصفحة من الكلمات العشوائية لا تختلف عن ممارسة فن الخط لتلاميذ المدارس الابتدائية.

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8
Q

Acceptability

A

It requires that a sequence of sentences be acceptable to the intended audience in order to qualify as a text. Thus, acceptability concerns the text receiver’s attitude that the utterances constitute a cohesive and coherent text.

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9
Q

Informativeness

A

It is necessary in discourse. A discourse must contain new information. Likewise, if a reader does not understand what is in a discourse, it also does not qualify as a discourse.
Every text is at least somewhat informative: no matter how predictable form and content may be, there will always be a few variable occurrences that cannot be entirely foreseen. Particularly low informativity is likely to be disturbing, causing boredom or even rejection of the text. The opening stretch of a science textbook runs like this:

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10
Q

Situationality

A

It is essential to textuality. Thus, it is important to consider the situation in which the discourse has been produced and dealt with. So, situationality concerns factors which make text relevant to a given situation.
For example: A road sign [1]
SLOW CHILDREN AT PLAY
One may treat the above road sign in different ways, but that the most probable intended use was obvious. The ease with which people can decide such an issue is due to the influence of the situation where the text is presented. the sign is placed in a location where a certain class of receivers, namely motorists, are likely to be asked for a particular action. It is far more reasonable to assume that ‘slow’ is a request to reduce speed rather than an announcement of the children’s mental or physical deficiencies. Pedestrians can tell that the text is not relevant for themselves because their speeds would not endanger anyone. In this manner, the sense and use of the text are decided via the situation.

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11
Q

Intertextuality

A

It means that a sequence of sentences is related by form or meaning to other sequences of sentences. In other words, intertextuality concerns factors which make utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts. An example of intertextuality where the two sequences are related by meaning is a news bulletin on a topic that has previously dealt with in a news program or a driver who has seen a road sign [1] is likely to see another sign further down the road, such as:
RESUME SPEED [2]
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One cannot ‘resume’ something unless one was doing it at an earlier time and then stopped it for some reason. The ‘speed’ at stake here can only be the one maintained until [1] was encountered and a reduction was made. Clearly, the sense and relevance of [2] depends upon knowing about [1] and applying the content to the evolving situation.

هذا يعني أن سلسلة من الجمل مرتبطة بالشكل أو المعنى بتسلسلات أخرى من الجمل. بعبارة أخرى، يتعلق الترابط بالعوامل التي تجعل استخدام نص واحد يعتمد على معرفة نص واحد أو أكثر من النصوص التي تمت مواجهتها سابقا. مثال على الترابط حيث يرتبط التسلسلان بالمعنى هو نشرة إخبارية حول موضوع سبق تناوله في برنامج إخباري أو من المرجح أن يرى السائق الذي رأى علامة طريق [1] علامة أخرى على الطريق، مثل:

سرعة السيرة الذاتية [2]

4

لا يمكن للمرء “استئناف” شيء ما ما إلا إذا كان يفعل ذلك في وقت سابق ثم أوقفه لسبب ما. لا يمكن أن تكون “السرعة” على المحك هنا هي السرعة التي يتم الحفاظ عليها إلا حتى تتم مواجهتها [1] وتم إجراء تخفيض. من الواضح أن معنى وأهمية [2] يعتمد على معرفة [1] وتطبيق المحتوى على الوضع المتطور.

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12
Q

Informativeness
It is necessary in discourse. A discourse must contain new information. Likewise, if a reader does not understand what is in a discourse, it also does not qualify as a discourse.
Every text is at least somewhat informative: no matter how predictable form and content may be, there will always be a few variable occurrences that cannot be entirely foreseen. Particularly low informativity is likely to be disturbing, causing boredom or even rejection of the text. The opening stretch of a science textbook runs like this:
The sea is water
The fact asserted here is so well known to everyone that there seems to be no point in saying it here. The stretch of text is clearly cohesive and coherent, and undoubtedly intended to be acceptable as such. But it is nonetheless a marginal text because it is so uninformative. Not until we look at the continuation does the text’s status seem more sound:
The sea is water only in the sense that water is the dominant substance present. Actually, it is a solution of gases and salts in addition to vast numbers of living organisms …

A

🪄

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13
Q

ما الذي يجعل خطاب الخطاب؟

أمثلة:

النشرة 9

(1) يريد جون زيارة صديقته. سيد. يعيش سميث في قرية صغيرة قريبة. المكنسة الكهربائية لم تعمل. لم يستطع الحلاق في الشارع المساعدة. تم بيع الورقة الأخيرة.

يبدو أن هذه القطعة قد ظهرت إلى حيز الوجود من خلال وضع عدد من الجمل غير ذات الصلة بترتيب عشوائي. ولكن إذا تم تغيير بعض الكلمات، فإن النتيجة هي جزء من الخطاب.

(2) يريد جون زيارة صديقته. تعيش ماري في قرية صغيرة قريبة. لن تبدأ السيارة. المرآب في الشارع لا يمكن أن يساعد. كانت الحافلة الأخيرة قد غادرت بالفعل. ستكون نزهة ساخنة طويلة.

يوضح المثال أن وجود روابط بين الجمل هو سمة مهمة للخطاب. مصطلح الاتصال غامض إلى حد ما. لذلك، صاغ روبرت دي بوغراند (1981) سبعة معايير للنص، أي المعايير التي يجب أن تستوفيها سلسلة من الجمل من أجل التأهل كخطاب.

أ. تماسك

إنه الاتصال الذي ينتج عندما يعتمد تفسير عنصر نصي على عنصر آخر في النص. بعبارة أخرى، يتعلق التماسك (النحوي) بالطرق التي ترتبط بها مكونات النص السطحي (الكلمات الفعلية) بشكل متبادل داخل تسلسل.

مثال:

1

(3) لم يعد المتجر يبيع تماثيل الخزف. قال الرجل الذي يقف خلف المنضدة، لكنهم لم يبيعوا بشكل جيد للغاية. منذ أن تحولت الأعمال التجارية إلى البلاستيك، كانت المبيعات أفضل بكثير.

يعتمد تفسير “إنه” على تفسير “المتجر” تماما كما يعتمد “هم” على تفسير “تماثيل الخزف”. يعتمد معنى “المستخدم” على “التماثيل الخزفية المباعة”. لا يمكن تفسير كلمة “بلاستيك” بالكامل إلا فيما يتعلق ب “تماثيل الخزف”. يشير التماسك إلى العلاقة الموجودة بين العناصر في النص.

ب. ترابط منطقي

إنه الاتصال الذي يحدث بسبب شيء خارج النص. وبالتالي، فإن الاتساق (المعجمي الدلالي) يتعلق بالطرق التي تكون بها مكونات العالم النصي (المفاهيم والعلاقات التي يقوم عليها النص السطحي) متاحة وذات صلة متبادلة.

عادة ما يكون هذا “الشيء” هو المعرفة التي يفترض أن يكون لدى المستمع أو القارئ. المثال التالي ليس مشكلة من حيث التماسك على الرغم من أن الجمل بالكاد تبدو مرتبطة:

(4) الإجراء بسيط للغاية في الواقع. أولا، يمكنك ترتيب الأشياء في مجموعات مختلفة. بالطبع، قد تكون كومة واحدة كافية اعتمادا على مقدار ما يجب القيام به. إذا كان عليك الذهاب إلى مكان آخر بسبب نقص المرافق، فهذه هي الخطوة التالية، وإلا فأنت على دراية جيدة.

من المهم عدم المبالغة في الأمور. أي أنه من الأفضل القيام بأشياء قليلة جدا في وقت واحد بدلا من الكثير منها. على المدى القصير، قد لا يبدو هذا مهما، ولكن يمكن أن تنشأ مضاعفات بسهولة. يمكن أن يكون الخطأ مكلفا أيضا.

في البداية سيبدو الإجراء بأكمله معقدا. ومع ذلك، ستصبح قريبا مجرد حقيقة أخرى من حقائق الحياة. من الصعب التنبؤ بأي نهاية لضرورة هذه المهمة في المستقبل القريب، ولكن بعد ذلك لا يمكن للمرء أن يقول أبدا.

يصبح هذا المقطع المفكك على ما يبدو متماسكا عندما يتم تطبيق معرفة معينة بالعالم، أي معرفة غسل الملابس، على النص. ثم يصبح النص سهل التفسير.

ج. القصدية

2

هذا يعني أنه يجب أن يكون لدى الكتاب والمتحدثين نية واعية لتحقيق أهداف محددة برسالتهم (مثل نقل المعلومات أو الجدال حول خيار). وفقا لهذا المعيار، لا يمكن تسمية تسلسل الكلمات في القصيدة التجريبية أوتا بو (انظر النشرة 7) بالخطاب إلا بعد تعيين نية تأليفية لها. عندما لا يتم تعيين أي نية، يصبح تسلسل الكلمات مكافئا لصفحة من الكلمات العشوائية لا تختلف عن ممارسة فن الخط لتلاميذ المدارس الابتدائية.

د. القبولية

يتطلب أن تكون سلسلة من الجمل مقبولة للجمهور المستهدف من أجل التأهل كنص. وبالتالي، تتعلق المقبولية بموقف مستقبل النص بأن الأقوال تشكل نصا متماسكا ومتماسكا.

ه. المعلوماتية المعلوماتية

إنه ضروري في الخطاب. يجب أن يحتوي الخطاب على معلومات جديدة. وبالمثل، إذا كان القارئ لا يفهم ما هو موجود في الخطاب، فإنه لا يعتبر أيضا خطابا.

كل نص غني بالمعلومات إلى حد ما على الأقل: بغض النظر عن مدى إمكانية التنبؤ بالشكل والمحتوى، سيكون هناك دائما بعض الأحداث المتغيرة التي لا يمكن التنبؤ بها تماما. من المرجح أن تكون المعلوماتية المنخفضة بشكل خاص مزعجة، مما يسبب الملل أو حتى رفض النص. يمتد الامتداد الافتتاحي لكتاب العلوم المدرسي على النحو التالي:

البحر ماء.

الحقيقة المؤكدة هنا معروفة جيدا للجميع لدرجة أنه يبدو أنه لا جدوى من قول ذلك هنا. من الواضح أن امتداد النص متماسك ومتماسك، ولا شك أنه يقصد به أن يكون مقبولا على هذا النحو. لكنه مع ذلك نص هامشي لأنه غير غني بالمعلومات. لا تبدو حالة النص أكثر سلامة حتى ننظر إلى الاستمرارية:

البحر هو الماء فقط بمعنى أن الماء هو المادة المهيمنة الموجودة. في الواقع، إنه محلول للغازات والأملاح بالإضافة إلى أعداد هائلة من الكائنات الحية …

3

و. الظرف

إنه ضروري للنص. وبالتالي، من المهم النظر في الحالة التي تم فيها إنتاج الخطاب والتعامل معه. لذلك، تتعلق الظرف بالعوامل التي تجعل النص ذا صلة بحالة معينة.

على سبيل المثال: علامة طريق [1]

الأطفال البطيئون في اللعب

يمكن للمرء أن يتعامل مع علامة الطريق المذكورة أعلاه بطرق مختلفة، ولكن الاستخدام المقصود الأكثر احتمالا كان واضحا. ترجع السهولة التي يمكن بها للأشخاص اتخاذ قرار بشأن مثل هذه المشكلة إلى تأثير الحالة التي يتم فيها تقديم النص. يتم وضع اللافتة في مكان من المرجح أن يطلب فيه من فئة معينة من أجهزة الاستقبال، أي سائقي السيارات، إجراء معين. من المعقول جدا افتراض أن “البطيء” هو طلب لتقليل السرعة بدلا من الإعلان عن أوجه القصور العقلية أو الجسدية للأطفال. يمكن للمشاة معرفة أن النص غير ذي صلة بأنفسهم لأن سرعاتهم لن تعرض أي شخص للخطر. بهذه الطريقة، يتم تحديد معنى النص واستخدامه من خلال الوضع.

ز. تداخل النص

هذا يعني أن سلسلة من الجمل مرتبطة بالشكل أو المعنى بتسلسلات أخرى من الجمل. بعبارة أخرى، يتعلق الترابط بالعوامل التي تجعل استخدام نص واحد يعتمد على معرفة نص واحد أو أكثر من النصوص التي تمت مواجهتها سابقا. مثال على الترابط حيث يرتبط التسلسلان بالمعنى هو نشرة إخبارية حول موضوع سبق تناوله في برنامج إخباري أو من المرجح أن يرى السائق الذي رأى علامة طريق [1] علامة أخرى على الطريق، مثل:

سرعة السيرة الذاتية [2]

4

لا يمكن للمرء “استئناف” شيء ما ما إلا إذا كان يفعل ذلك في وقت سابق ثم أوقفه لسبب ما. لا يمكن أن تكون “السرعة” على المحك هنا هي السرعة التي يتم الحفاظ عليها إلا حتى تتم مواجهتها [1] وتم إجراء تخفيض. من الواضح أن معنى وأهمية [2] يعتمد على معرفة [1] وتطبيق المحتوى على الوضع المتطور.

A
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14
Q

What makes discourse discourse?
Examples:
Handout 9
(1) John wants to visit his girlfriend. Mr. Smith lives in a small village nearby. The vacuum cleaner didn’t work. The barber down the street couldn’t help. The last paper had been sold.
This fragment seems to have come into existence by a number of unrelated sentences being placed in random order. But if some words are changed, a piece of discourse is the result.
(2) John wants to visit his girlfriend. Mary lives in a small village nearby. The car wouldn’t start. The garage down the street couldn’t help. The last bus had already left. It is going to be a long hot walk.
The example illustrates that the existence of connections between sentences is an important characteristic of discourse. The term connection is somewhat vague. Therefore, Robert de Beaugrande (1981) formulated seven criteria for textuality, that is, criteria that a sequence of sentences must meet in order to qualify as a discourse.
a. Cohesion
It is the connection that results when the interpretation of a textual element is dependent on another element in the text. In other words, cohesion (grammatical) concerns the ways in which the components of the surface text (the actual words) are mutually connected within a sequence.
Example:
1

(3) The store no longer sold porcelain figurines. It used to, the man behind the counter said, but they didn’t sell very well. Since the business has switched to plastic, sales were doing a lot better.
The interpretation of ‘It’ is dependent on that of ‘store’ just as ‘they’ is dependent on that of ‘porcelain figurines’. The meaning of ‘used to’ is dependent on ‘sold porcelain figurines’. The word ‘plastic’ can only be completely interpreted in relation to ‘porcelain figurines’. Cohesion refers to the connection that exists between elements in the text.
b. Coherence
It is the connection that is brought about by something outside the text. Thus, Coherence (lexical-semantic) concerns ways in which the components of the textual world (the concepts and relations which underlie the surface text) are mutually accessible and relevant.
This ‘something’ is usually knowledge which a listener or reader is assumed to have. The following example is not problematic in terms of cohesion even though the sentences hardly seem to be connected:
(4) The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set.
It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well.
At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another fact of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell.
This seemingly disjoined passage becomes coherent when certain knowledge of the world, i.e. knowledge of washing clothes, is applied to the text. The text then becomes easy to interpret.
c. Intentionality
2

It means that writers and speakers must have the conscious intention of achieving specific goals with their message (e.g. conveying information or arguing an option). According to this criterion, the sequence of words in the experimental poem Ota Boo (see handout 7) can only be called a discourse after an authorial intention has been assigned to it. When no intention is assigned, the word sequence becomes the equivalent of a page of random words not unlike the penmanship practice of elementary school pupils.
d. Acceptability
It requires that a sequence of sentences be acceptable to the intended audience in order to qualify as a text. Thus, acceptability concerns the text receiver’s attitude that the utterances constitute a cohesive and coherent text.
e. Informativeness
It is necessary in discourse. A discourse must contain new information. Likewise, if a reader does not understand what is in a discourse, it also does not qualify as a discourse.
Every text is at least somewhat informative: no matter how predictable form and content may be, there will always be a few variable occurrences that cannot be entirely foreseen. Particularly low informativity is likely to be disturbing, causing boredom or even rejection of the text. The opening stretch of a science textbook runs like this:
The sea is water
The fact asserted here is so well known to everyone that there seems to be no point in saying it here. The stretch of text is clearly cohesive and coherent, and undoubtedly intended to be acceptable as such. But it is nonetheless a marginal text because it is so uninformative. Not until we look at the continuation does the text’s status seem more sound:
The sea is water only in the sense that water is the dominant substance present. Actually, it is a solution of gases and salts in addition to vast numbers of living organisms …
3

f. Situationality
It is essential to textuality. Thus, it is important to consider the situation in which the discourse has been produced and dealt with. So, situationality concerns factors which make text relevant to a given situation.
For example: A road sign [1]
SLOW CHILDREN AT PLAY
One may treat the above road sign in different ways, but that the most probable intended use was obvious. The ease with which people can decide such an issue is due to the influence of the situation where the text is presented. the sign is placed in a location where a certain class of receivers, namely motorists, are likely to be asked for a particular action. It is far more reasonable to assume that ‘slow’ is a request to reduce speed rather than an announcement of the children’s mental or physical deficiencies. Pedestrians can tell that the text is not relevant for themselves because their speeds would not endanger anyone. In this manner, the sense and use of the text are decided via the situation.
g. Intertextuality
It means that a sequence of sentences is related by form or meaning to other sequences of sentences. In other words, intertextuality concerns factors which make utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts. An example of intertextuality where the two sequences are related by meaning is a news bulletin on a topic that has previously dealt with in a news program or a driver who has seen a road sign [1] is likely to see another sign further down the road, such as:
RESUME SPEED [2]
4

One cannot ‘resume’ something unless one was doing it at an earlier time and then stopped it for some reason. The ‘speed’ at stake here can only be the one maintained until [1] was encountered and a reduction was made. Clearly, the sense and relevance of [2] depends upon knowing about [1] and applying the content to the evolving situation.

A
How well did you know this?
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Not at all
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Perfectly