H14 Personality Flashcards

1
Q

Focus 20: What characteristics of the mind underlie personality differences, according to the psychodynamic perspective?

A

Volgens psychodynamische theorieën liggen variaties in de onbewuste motieven van mensen, in hoe die motieven tot uiting komen en in de manieren waarop mensen zichzelf verdedigen tegen angst aan de basis van persoonlijkheidsverschillen.

Freud geloofde ook dat persoonlijkheid zich in een reeks stadia ontwikkelt: orale, anale, fallische, latentie- en genitale stadia. Hij zag de geslachtsdrift als een primair instinct, uitgedrukt in alle levensfasen, en stelde voor dat de belangrijkste bron van plezierbevrediging, of spanningsvermindering, zich concentreert op specifieke lichaamszones, de erogene zones. (We moeten opmerken dat Freud het woord ‘seksualiteit’ vaak in een bredere zin gebruikte ; in zijn gebruik was het vaak een synoniem voor ‘op zoek naar plezier’.) Deze zones veranderen in de loop van de ontwikkeling, waarbij erogene centra verschuiven van het orale naar het anale gebied in de vroege kinderjaren, en dan uiteindelijk naar het genitale gebied. Volgens Freud heeft de manier waarop ouders omgaan met de seksuele (of genotzuchtige) impulsen van hun kinderen belangrijke gevolgen voor hun latere ontwikkelin

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2
Q

14.555 Psychodynamic Theories

A

Persoonlijkheidstheorieën die het samenspel van mentale krachten benadrukken (het woord dynamisch verwijst naar energie of kracht en psycho verwijst naar de geest). Twee leidende veronderstellingen van psychodynamische theorieën zijn dat (a) mensen zich vaak niet bewust zijn van hun motieven en (b) processen die afweermechanismen / verdedigingsmechanismes worden genoemd werken onbewust in de geest om onaanvaardbare of angstopwekkende gedachten uit het bewustzijn te houden. Volgens psychodynamische theorieën liggen variaties in de onbewuste motieven van mensen, in hoe die motieven tot uiting komen en in de manieren waarop mensen zichzelf verdedigen tegen angst aan de basis van persoonlijkheidsverschillen.

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3
Q

Focus 21: How is the concept of unconscious motivation illustrated by posthypnotic suggestion?

A

Bij een demonstratie van posthypnotische suggestie wordt een persoon gehypnotiseerd en krijgt hij een instructie zoals “Als je wakker wordt, zul je je niet herinneren wat er tijdens hypnose is gebeurd. Als de klok luidt, loop je door de kamer, pak je de paraplu die daar ligt en maak je hem open.” Wanneer de persoon wakker wordt, lijkt hij zich volkomen normaal en zelfsturend te gedragen totdat de klok luidt. Bij dit signaal voelt de proefpersoon bewust een onweerstaanbare impuls om de bevolen handeling uit te voeren, en voert deze bewust uit, maar heeft geen bewuste herinnering aan de oorsprong van de impuls (het bevel van de hypnotiseur). Als hem wordt gevraagd waarom hij of zij de paraplu opent, kan de proefpersoon een plausibele maar duidelijk valse reden bedenken, zoals “Ik dacht dat ik het moest testen omdat het later zou kunnen regenen.” Volgens Freud zijn de echte redenen achter onze dagelijkse handelingen eveneens verborgen in onze onbewuste geest, en onze bewuste redenen zijn doofpotten, plausibele maar valse rationalisaties waarvan we denken dat ze waar zijn.

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4
Q

Focus 22: How did Freud draw inferences about the content of his clients’ unconscious minds?

A

Freud geloofde dat om de acties, problemen en persoonlijkheden van zijn patiënten te begrijpen, hij de inhoud van hun onbewuste geest moest leren kennen. Maar hoe zou hij dat kunnen doen als het onbewuste per definitie alleen bestaat uit informatie waar de patiënt niet over kan praten? Hij beweerde dat hij het kon door bepaalde aspecten van hun spraak en ander waarneembaar gedrag te analyseren om conclusies te trekken over hun onbewuste motieven. Hier komt de term psychoanalyse vandaan. Zijn techniek was om het gedrag van de patiënt te zoeken naar aanwijzingen voor het onbewuste. Als een detective verzamelde hij aanwijzingen en probeerde ze samen te voegen tot een samenhangend verhaal over de onbewuste oorzaken van de bewuste gedachten en acties van de persoon.

Omdat de bewuste geest altijd probeert te handelen op een manier die in overeenstemming is met de conventionele logica, redeneerde Freud dat de elementen van denken en gedrag die het minst logisch zijn, de beste aanwijzingen zouden geven voor het onbewuste. Ze zouden delen van de onbewuste geest vertegenwoordigen die relatief ongewijzigd zijn uitgelekt naar het bewustzijn. Freud besteedde daarom bijzondere aandacht aan de versprekingen van zijn patiënten en andere fouten als aanwijzingen voor het onbewuste. Hij vroeg hen ook om hun dromen te beschrijven en om op ongecensureerde wijze te rapporteren welke gedachten in je opkwamen als reactie op bepaalde woorden of zinsdelen.

Freud beschouwde driften als analoog aan fysieke vormen van energie die zich in de loop van de tijd opbouwen en op de een of andere manier moeten worden vrijgegeven. Om vreedzaam in de samenleving te kunnen leven, moeten mensen vaak directe uitingen van seksuele en agressieve driften afremmen, dus dit zijn de driften die zich het meest waarschijnlijk zullen opbouwen en zich op indirecte manieren inspannen. Freud concludeerde uit zijn observaties dat veel van menselijk gedrag bestaat uit verkapte uitingen van seks en agressie en dat persoonlijkheidsverschillen liggen in de verschillende manieren waarop mensen deze driften verhullen en kanaliseren. In de loop van de tijd is Freud (1933/1964) deze drijfveren steeds breder gaan definiëren. Hij beschouwde de geslachtsdrift als de belangrijkste drang naar plezier en leven en de agressieve drang als de kracht achter allerlei destructieve acties, inclusief acties die zichzelf schaden.

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5
Q

What are the 4 D’s and what are they used for (psychological disorder related)?

A

Before clinicians or researchers can diagnose a psychological disorder, they must evaluate the behavior in terms of four themes, sometimes referred to as the four Ds: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger.

  1. Deviance (afwijkend gedrag) refers to the degree to which the behaviors a person engages in or his or her ideas are considered unacceptable or uncommon in society. For example, being convinced you are being controlled by an alien force would be considered deviant in Western society today.
  2. Distress refers to the negative feelings a person has because of his or her disorder (e.g., persistent sadness), or the negative feelings of other people (e.g., loss of money due to a spouse’s uncontrolled gambling).
  3. Dysfunction refers to the maladaptive behavior that interferes with a person being able to successfully carry out everyday functions, such as being able to leave the house or to have social relationships with other people.
  4. Danger refers to dangerous or violent behavior directed at other people or oneself (e.g., suicidal thoughts, self-mutilation). As you think about the four Ds, you may realize that they do not enable us to make a sharp distinction between “abnormal” misery and “normal” misery—that is, between psychological disorders and normal, run-of-the-mill psychological disturbances. Yet, mental health professionals regularly do make judgments about the presence or absence of a psychological disorder, and they regularly distinguish among and give names to different types of psychological disorders.
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6
Q

14.566 Trait

A

The most central concept in personality psychology is the trait, which can be defined as a relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain way. Traits are considered to be part of the person, not part of the environment. People carry their traits with them from one environment to another, although the actual manifestation of a trait in the form of behavior usually requires some perceived cue or trigger in the environment. For example, the trait of aggressiveness might be defined as an inner predisposition to argue or fight. That predisposition is presumed to stay with the person in all environments, but actual arguing or fighting is unlikely to occur unless the person perceives provocations in the environment. Aggressiveness or kindness or any other personality trait is, in that sense, analogous to the physical trait of “meltability” in margarine. Margarine melts only when subjected to heat (a characteristic of the environment); but some types of margarine need less heat to melt than others do, and that difference lies in the margarine, not in the environment.

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7
Q

Focus 1: how do traits differ from states? What does it mean to say that a trait is a dimension rather than an all-or-none characteristic?

A
  1. A state is not a trait. A state of anger = momentopname. However, before we judge her as having an aggressive or hostile personality we would have to know how easily she is provoked into anger.
  2. Traits are not characteristics that people have or lack in all-or-none fashion but, rather, are dimensions (continuous, measurable characteristics) along which people differ by degree. If we measured aggressiveness or any other trait in a large number of people, our results would approximate a normal distribution, in which the majority are near the middle of the range and few are at the extremes
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8
Q

14. 536 Trait theories of personality

A

Personality psychologists have long been interested in devising a more efficient vocabulary for describing personality. Trait theories of personality endeavor to specify a manageable set of distinct personality dimensions that can be used to summarize the fundamental psychological differences among individuals.

Theories of personality that are based on the idea that people can be described and differentiated in terms of hypothetical underlying personality dimensions, called traits, which can be measured by questionnaires or other quantitative means.

A trait can be defined as a relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain way.

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9
Q

Focus 2: How is factor analysis used to identify trait dimensions that are not redundant with one another?

A
  1. The first step in a factor-analytic study of personality is to collect data in the form of a set of personality measures taken across a large sampling of people. For example, the researcher might present a group of people with a set of adjectives and ask each person to indicate, on a scale of 1 to 5, the degree to which each adjective describes him- or herself. For the sake of simplicity, let us imagine a study in which just seven adjectives are used—carefree, compliant, dependable, hardworking, kind, rude, and trusting.
  2. Once the data are collected, the researcher statistically correlates the scores for each adjective with those for each of the other adjectives, using the method of correlation. The result is a matrix of correlation coefficients, showing the correlation for every possible pair of scores
  3. The next step in a factor analysis is a mathematically complex one called factor extraction, in which items (here adjectives) that are strongly related to one another, or that cluster together, are identified. In our example there are two rather clear factors. One factor corresponds most closely with the adjectives carefree, dependable, and hardworking; and the other factor corresponds most closely with the adjectives compliant, kind, rude, and trusting.
  4. The final step is a subjective one, in which the researcher provides a label for the factors. In our hypothetical example, the factor that corresponds with carefree, dependable, and hardworking might be referred to as the conscientiousness dimension; and the factor that corresponds with compliant, kind, rude, and trusting might be referred to as the agreeableness dimension.
  5. Wat de factoranalyse ons vertelt is dat deze twee persoonlijkheidsdimensies relatief onafhankelijk van elkaar zijn. Mensen met een hoge graad van consciëntieusheid hebben ongeveer evenveel kans om hoog of laag te scoren in eensgezindheid, en vice versa. Gewetensvolheid en eensgezindheid zijn dus nuttige, efficiënte kenmerken omdat ze elkaar niet overbodig maken en omdat ze elk ten minste een deel van de essentie van een reeks meer specifieke kenmerken omvatten
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10
Q

14.536 Factor Analysis

A

In order to distill all the trait terms of everyday language down to a manageable number of meaningful, different dimensions of personality, trait theorists use a statistical technique called factor analysis. Factor analysis is a method of analyzing patterns of correlations in order to extract mathematically defined factors, which underlie and help make sense of those patterns.

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11
Q

14.538 Five-factor model = the Big Five theory, of personality.

A

Five-factor model = the Big Five theory, of personality.

According to the model, a person’s personality is most efficiently described in terms of his or her score on each of five relatively independent global trait dimensions:

  1. neuroticism (vulnerability to emotional upset),
  2. extraversion (tendency to be socially outgoing),
  3. openness to experience,
  4. agreeableness, and
  5. conscientiousness.

An easy way to remember the five factors is to observe that their initials spell the acronym OCEAN: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Nearly all of the thousands of adjectives commonly used to describe personalities correlate at least to some degree with one or another of these five traits. The model also posits that each global trait dimension encompasses six subordinate trait dimensions referred to as facets of that trait . The facets within any given trait dimension correlate with one another, but the correlations are far from perfect. Thus, a detailed description of someone’s personality would include not just a score for each of the five global traits but also a score for each of the 30 facets

Other researchers have argued that a sixth trait, honesty-humility, should be added to the Big Five, producing the HEXACO Model (Honesty-Humility, Emotionality [comparable to neuroticism in the Five-Factor Mode], eXtraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness;

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12
Q

What 6th trait should be added according to some researchers?

A

Other researchers have argued that a sixth trait, honesty-humility, should be added to the Big Five, producing the HEXACO Model (Honesty-Humility, Emotionality [comparable to neuroticism in the Five-Factor Mode], eXtraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness;

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13
Q

14.538 Grit

A

Angela Duckworth proposed a higher-order personality trait independent of IQ that is predictive of success in a wide range of domains. = Grit, which is defined as “perseverance and passion for long-term goals”. Grit consists of two lower-order factors: perseverance of effort and consistency of interest. Basically, grit reflects the tendency to work hard at achieving important goals, even in the face of setbacks, and to stick with a particular goal rather than changing goals and interests.

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14
Q

Focus 4: what does Grit predict, and how is it similar to or different from the personality trait of conscientiousness?

A
  1. Grit, in het bijzonder de neiging om moeilijke taken vol te houden, lijkt een belangrijke aanvulling te zijn op de set van niet-cognitieve persoonlijkheidskenmerken voor het voorspellen van succes op sommige taken, maar de effecten ervan zijn blijkbaar niet zo robuust als oorspronkelijk voorgesteld.
  2. Grit was sterk gecorreleerd met consciëntieusheid (correlaties van meer dan .80). De doorzettingsvermogenfactor, maar niet de consistentiefactor, verklaarde individuele verschillen in uitkomsten buiten de effecten van consciëntieusheid.
  3. Een reden voor de gemengde resultaten van de invloed van grit op succes kan zijn dat de voordelen van grit beperkt zijn tot bepaalde taken. Grit kan bijvoorbeeld een voorspellende waarde hebben voor succes bij taken die moeilijk en duidelijk omschreven zijn en waarbij veel oefening nodig is om succes te boeken. Grit kan minder voorspellend zijn voor succes bij relatief makkelijke taken of bij nieuwe of slecht gedefinieerde taken. Het te lang volhouden van een moeilijke taak kan zelfs schadelijk zijn als het mensen ervan weerhoudt hulp te zoeken of bij een probleem te blijven wanneer het nuttiger zou zijn over te stappen op andere, beter oplosbare problemen
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15
Q

14.540 Dark triad of personality traits

A

Researchers have identified people with socially aversive personalities as scoring high on the dark triad of personality traits, which consists of narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy

Dark triad = three related socially aversive personality traits—narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy—describing people with “dark personalities. Some researchers have added “everyday sadism” to the list—people who enjoy inflicting verbal or physical harm (think of bullies)—producing a dark tetrad

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16
Q

14.540 Narcissism

A

Narcissism is defined as extreme selfishness with a grandiose view of one’s own abilities and a need for admiration.

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17
Q

14.540 Machiavellianism

A

Machiavellianism refers to a personality type in which the person is predisposed to manipulate other people, often through deception.

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18
Q

14.540 Psychopathy

A

Psychopathy involves amoral or antisocial behavior, coupled with a lack of empathy and an inability to form meaningful personal relationships. At its extreme, psychopathy is a personality disorder (antisocial personality disorder,), but psychopathy can also be expressed at preclinical levels.

19
Q

Which personality trait do some researcher want to add to the dark triad?

A

Some researchers have added “everyday sadism” to the list—people who enjoy inflicting verbal or physical harm (think of bullies)—producing a dark tetrad

20
Q

14.540 What is the NEO ?

A

The questionnaire most often used to measure the Big Five traits and their facets is the NEO Personality Inventory (where N, E, and O stand for three of the five major traits), developed by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae (1992). In its full form, the person being tested rates 240 statements on a 5-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Each statement is designed to assess one facet of one of the five major traits.

For example, here are two statements from the NEO-PI-3 designed to assess the sixth facet (values) of openness to experience:

  1. Our ideas of right and wrong may not be right for everyone in the world.
  2. People should honor traditional values and not question them.
21
Q

Focus 12: How does a distal explanation of personality variability differ from a proximate one?

A

Why are people different from one another in personality? Psychologists and biologists distinguish between two different types of answers to why questions.

  1. Proximate explanation, focuses on causal mechanisms that operate in the lifetime of the individual to produce the phenomenon in question. Proximate explanations of personality differences focus on ways by which differing genes and experiences work to make us different.
  2. Distal explanation, focuses on function, or evolutionary survival value, rather than mechanisms. How might personality differences help individuals survive longer and produce more offspring than they would if all individuals were identical in personality? Why were genetic, developmental, and learning mechanisms that ensure diversity in personality favored by natural selection over mechanisms that would have made us more uniform?
22
Q

14.549 Differential susceptibility to environmental influence

A

Personality traits are viewed as relatively stable characteristics of a person. Although context clearly affects how we behave, a trait implies stability, a degree of permanency about an individual. However, researchers have discovered one trait that is associated not with stability but with change: differential susceptibility to environmental influence. This is the idea that people are differentially susceptible to being influenced by their environment. Highly susceptible children (orchid children) will flourish in good environments and do especially poorly in adverse environments. Less-susceptible children (dandelion children) are less affected by their rearing conditions so that extreme environments (both good and bad) will have less of an impact on their psychological outcomes

23
Q

14.551 Sibling contrast

A

Preexisting small differences between siblings may become exaggerated in part because siblings tend to define themselves as different from one another and tend to accentuate those differences through their own behavioral choices Parents likewise tend to focus more on differences than on similarities when they describe two or more of their children. This within-family emphasis on the differences between siblings is referred to as sibling contrast.

24
Q

14.549 Split-parent identification

A

Possibly related to sibling contrast is split-parent identification, defined as a tendency for each of two siblings to identify with a different one of their two parents. If the first child identifies more strongly with the mother, the second typically identifies more strongly with the father, and vice versa. Sibling contrast and split-parent identification have been documented as highly reliable phenomena

25
Q

Focus 16: How might sibling contrast and split-parent identification be useful in reducing sibling rivalry and diversifying parental investment?

A

Sibling contrast and split-parent identification are devices by which parents and children consciously or unconsciously strive to reduce sibling rivalry, which can be highly disruptive to family functioning. If siblings are seen by themselves and their parents as having very different abilities, needs, and dispositions, then the siblings are less likely to compete with one another and more likely to be valued and rewarded separately for their unique characteristics.

In support of the view that sibling contrast and split-parent identification serve to reduce sibling rivalry, Schachter (1982) found that both phenomena are much stronger for adjacent pairs of siblings (tweelingen) than for pairs who are separated in birth order and stronger for same-sex pairs of siblings than for opposite-sex pairs. Other researchers have also found greater sibling contrast for siblings who are close in age than for those who are more distant in age. It seems reasonable that siblings who are the same sex, adjacent to each other in birth order, and close in age would be most subject to implicit comparisons and possible rivalries and would therefore have the greatest need to reduce rivalry through contrast and split-parent identification.

26
Q

14.556 Psychoanalysis and psychodynamic theories

A

Freud coined the term psychoanalysis to refer both to his method of treatment and to his theory of personality. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the first of what today are called psychodynamic theories—personality theories that emphasize the interplay of mental forces (the word dynamic refers to energy or force and psycho refers to mind).

Two guiding premises of psychodynamic theories are that

(a) people are often unconscious of their motives and
(b) processes called defense mechanisms work within the mind to keep unacceptable or anxiety-producing motives and thoughts out of consciousness.

According to psychodynamic theories, personality differences lie in variations in people’s unconscious motives, in how those motives are manifested, and in the ways that people defend themselves from anxiety.

27
Q

14.558 Defense mechanisms

A

Mental processes of self-deception, known as defense mechanisms, operate to reduce one’s consciousness of wishes, memories, and other thoughts that would threaten one’s self-esteem or in other ways provoke a strong sense of insecurity or anxiety.

In psychoanalytic theory, self-deceptive means by which the mind defends itself against anxiety.

Displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, repression, sublimation.

28
Q

14.558 Repression

A

Repression is the process by which anxiety-producing thoughts are pushed out or kept out of the conscious mind (so unconscious). In Freud’s theory, repression provides the basis for most of the other defense mechanisms

29
Q

14.558 Displacement

A

Displacement occurs when an unconscious wish or drive that would be unacceptable to the conscious mind is redirected toward a more acceptable alternative. For example, a child long past infancy may still have a desire to suck at the mother’s breast—a desire that is now threatening and repressed because it violates the child’s conscious understanding of what is proper and possible. The desire might be displaced toward sucking on a lollipop, an action that is symbolically equivalent to the original desire but more acceptable and realistic.

30
Q

14.558 Sublimation

A

Displacement occurs when an unconscious wish or drive that would be unacceptable to the conscious mind is redirected toward a more acceptable alternative. In some cases, displacement may direct one’s energies toward activities that are particularly valued by society, such as artistic, scientific, or humanitarian endeavors. In these cases displacement is referred to as sublimation

31
Q

14.559 Reaction formation

A

Reaction formation is the conversion of a frightening wish into its safer opposite. For example, a young woman who unconsciously hates her mother and wishes her dead may consciously experience these feelings as intense love for her mother and strong concern for her safety. Psychodynamic theorists have long speculated that homophobia—the irrational fear and hatred of homosexuals—may often stem from reaction formation. People who have a tendency toward homosexuality, but fear it, may protect themselves from recognizing it by vigorously separating themselves from homosexuals

32
Q

14.559 Projection

A

Projection occurs when a person consciously experiences an unconscious drive or wish as though it were someone else’s. A person with intense, unconscious anger may project that anger onto her friend—she may feel that it is her friend, not she, who is angry.

33
Q

14.559 Rationalization

A

Rationalization is the use of conscious reasoning to explain away anxiety-provoking thoughts or feelings. A man who cannot face his own sadistic tendencies may rationalize the beatings he gives his children by convincing himself that children need to be disciplined and that he is only carrying out his fatherly duty.

34
Q

14.562 Phenomenology and phenomenological reality

A

Phenomenology is the study of conscious perceptions and understandings, and humanistic theorists use the term phenomenological reality to refer to each person’s conscious understanding of his or her world. Humanistic theorists commonly claim that one’s phenomenological reality is one’s real world; it provides the basis for the person’s contentment or lack of contentment and for the meaning that he or she finds in life. In the words of one of the leaders of humanistic psychology, Carl Rogers (1980): “The only reality you can possibly know is the world as you perceive and experience it. . . . And the only certainty is that those perceived realities are different. There are as many ‘real worlds’ as there are people.”

35
Q

14.562 Humanistic theories

A

Humanistic theories emphasize people’s conscious understanding of themselves and their capacity to choose their own paths to fulfillment. They are called humanistic because they center on an aspect of human nature that seems to distinguish us clearly from other animals—our tendency to create belief systems, to develop meaningful stories about ourselves and our world, and to govern our lives in accordance with those stories.

36
Q

What is the distinction/3 categories that Vaillant makes between the different defenses?

A

Immature defenses were those presumed to distort reality the most and to lead to the most ineffective actions. Projection was included in this category. Intermediate defenses (referred to by Vaillant as “neurotic defenses”), including repression and reaction formation, were presumed to involve less distortion of reality and to lead to somewhat more effective coping. Mature defenses were presumed to involve the least distortion of reality and to lead to the most adaptive behaviors. One of the most common of the mature defenses was suppression, which involves the conscious avoidance of negative thinking. Suppression differs from repression in that the person has more conscious control over the decision to think about, or not think about, the distressing experience. Another defense in the mature category was humor, which, according to Freud and other psychodynamic theorists, reduces fear by making fun of feared ideas.

37
Q

14.563 Self-actualization

A

Humanistic theorists use the term self-actualization to refer to the process of becoming one’s full self—that is, of realizing one’s dreams and capabilities. The specific route to self-actualization will vary from person to person and from time to time within a person’s lifetime, but for each individual the route must be self-chosen.

38
Q

14.565 Locus of control

A

Rotter (1966) suggested that people tend to behave according to a generalized disposition (a personality trait), acquired from past experience, to believe that rewards either are or are not usually controllable by people’s own efforts. He referred to this disposition as locus of control and developed a questionnaire to measure it. People whose answers reflect a belief that individuals control their own rewards (and, by extension, their own fate) are said to have an internal locus of control. People whose answers reflect a belief that rewards (and fate) are controlled by factors outside themselves are said to have an external locus of control.

39
Q

14.564 Social-cognitive theories

A

Social-cognitive theories of personality, sometimes called social-learning or social-cognitive-learning theories, draw both from clinical psychologists’ experiences with their clients and from academic psychologists’ research on learning, cognition, and social influence. In place of the instinctive, unconscious motives posited by psychodynamic theories as the prime shapers of personality, social-cognitive theories emphasize the roles of general beliefs about the nature of the world, which are acquired through one’s experiences in the social environment.

These beliefs may be conscious, but they may also be so ingrained and automatic that they exert their influence without the person’s conscious awareness. They can be thought of as automatic habits of thought, which can influence many aspects of a person’s behavior. Thus, to social-cognitive theorists, the term unconscious generally refers to automatic mental processes, not to thoughts that are actively barred from consciousness by defense mechanisms. As you will see, social-cognitive ideas overlap very much with humanistic ideas about personality, but they are based more on laboratory research, and they have more to do with predicting people’s behavior in specific situations, and less to do with global life choices, than is the case for humanistic theories.

40
Q

14.566 Self-efficacy

A

Bandura’s research centers on self-efficacy: people’s beliefs about their own abilities to perform specific tasks. People who expect that they can perform a certain task are said to have high self-efficacy about the task, and people who expect the opposite are said to have low self-efficacy about it.

Self-efficacy may seem similar to locus of control, but Bandura (1997) considers the two to be distinct. Self-efficacy refers to the person’s sense of his or her own ability, while locus of control refers to the person’s belief that ability will produce desired effects. Although self-efficacy and an internal locus of control usually go together, they do not always. If you believe, for example, that you are skilled at math but that the skill is worthless (perhaps because it is unrecognized by your math professor or others in society), then you have high self-efficacy but an external locus of control in that area. Conversely, if you believe that skill at math would bring rewards but that you don’t have the skill, then you have low self-efficacy and an internal locus of control in that area. As is the case for locus of control, self-efficacy may be specific to a very narrow range of tasks or more general over a broad range of tasks

41
Q

Focus 3: Why is the five-factor model of personality generally preferred today over Cattell’s trait theory?

A

Veel onderzoekers vinden de 16-factortheorie van Cattell te ingewikkeld en vinden dat sommige factoren overbodig zijn. Vandaag de dag, met computers, is het veel gemakkelijker om grootschalige factor-analytische studies uit te voeren dan in de tijd van Cattell het geval was.

Veel studies zijn uitgevoerd met zowel kinderen als volwassenen, en met mensen uit veel verschillende culturen, waarbij gebruik is gemaakt van vragenlijsten die in veel verschillende talen zijn vertaald ). Over het algemeen zijn de resultaten vrij consistent in het ondersteunen van wat bekend is geworden als het vijf-factoren model, of de Big Five theorie, van persoonlijkheid.

Volgens dit model kan iemands persoonlijkheid het best worden beschreven aan de hand van zijn of haar score op elk van de vijf relatief onafhankelijke globale karaktertrekdimensies: neuroticisme (kwetsbaarheid voor emotionele ontsteltenis), extraversie (de neiging om sociaal extravert te zijn), openheid voor ervaringen, aangenaamheid, en consciëntieusheid. (Een gemakkelijke manier om de vijf factoren te onthouden is op te merken dat hun initialen het acroniem OCEAN vormen: openheid voor ervaring, consciëntieusheid, extraversie, aangenaamheid, en neuroticisme). Bijna alle duizenden bijvoeglijke naamwoorden die gewoonlijk worden gebruikt om persoonlijkheden te beschrijven, correleren op zijn minst tot op zekere hoogte met één of andere van deze vijf eigenschappen. Het model stelt ook dat elke globale karaktertrekdimensie zes ondergeschikte karaktertrekdimensies omvat die facetten van die karaktertrek worden genoemd. De facetten binnen een bepaalde traitdimensie correleren met elkaar, maar de correlaties zijn verre van perfect. Een gedetailleerde beschrijving van iemands persoonlijkheid zou dus niet alleen een score voor elk van de vijf globale kenmerken bevatten, maar ook een score voor elk van de 30 facetten.

42
Q

How are the big five traits and their facets measured?

A

Trait theoretici hebben veel verschillende vragenlijsten ontwikkeld om persoonlijkheid te beoordelen. De meest gebruikte vragenlijst om de Big Five eigenschappen en hun facetten te meten is de NEO Persoonlijkheids Inventaris (waarbij N, E, en O staan voor drie van de vijf belangrijkste eigenschappen), ontwikkeld door Paul Costa en Robert McCrae (1992). Deze vragenlijst is nu aan zijn derde herziening toe en wordt de NEO-PI-3 genoemd . In zijn volledige vorm beoordeelt de geteste persoon 240 uitspraken op een 5-puntsschaal van “sterk mee oneens” tot “sterk mee eens”. Elke uitspraak is ontworpen om een facet van een van de vijf belangrijkste eigenschappen te beoordelen.Bij de ontwikkeling van dergelijke tests onderwerpen karaktertheoretici de resultaten van proeftoetsen aan een factoranalyse en gebruiken de resultaten om items te elimineren waarvan de scores niet sterk (positief of negatief) correleren met de scores van andere items die zijn ontworpen om hetzelfde facet te meten.
De laatste jaren zijn verkorte versies van de NEO-PI beschikbaar op het Internet

43
Q

Humanistic theory: Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs

A
  1. Fysiologische behoeftes (eten, drinken)
  2. Veiligheid
  3. Attachment needs
  4. Esteem needs (respect from others and the self)
  5. Self actualisation needs: self-expression, creativity and a sense of connecteness with the universe