graphophonemic rules for english consonants

Question 1

values 1 & 2 for

c

Answer 1

1. /k/
2. /s/ before i, y, e, ee, ea, ie, ae, oe

Other.
cf. palatalisation

Question 2

values 1 & 2 for g

Answer 2

1. /g/
2. /dʒ/ before i, y, e, ee

Other
/ʒ/ genre

Question 3

values for d

Answer 3

/d/

+ cf. palatalisation

Question 4

values for n

Answer 4

/n/

/ŋ/ before /k, g/ or in <-ing#>

Question 5

consonants that undergo palatisation

Answer 5

c, d, s, t, x

Question 6

values for cc

Answer 6

1. /k/
2. /ks/ if preceding <e, i, y>

Question 7

values for gu

Answer 7

1. /g/
2. /gw/ medial pos. without morphemic boundary: (anguish, languid)

Question 8

qu

Answer 8

1. /kw/
2. /k/ in -que, -quer, -quet, -quor

Question 9

ch

Answer 9

1. /tʃ/
2. /k/ in words of classical origin
   (archipelago, architect, anarchy,
   monarch, chemical, stomach)
3. /ʃ/ niche,
   machine, chalet

Question 10

sch

Answer 10

1. /ʃ/
2. /sk/ before a V: scheme, schoo

Question 11

sc

Answer 11

1. /sk/
2. /s/ before e/i/y
3. /ʃ/ conscience

Question 12

Values of <s></s>

Answer 12

word-initially

• /s/ always (see, sea, saw)

word-medially

• /s/ between 2 unstressed vowels (comparison)
• /z/ between 2 vowels if the first one is stressed (busy, cousin)
• /z/ after inseparable prefixes pre-, de-, re- (presume, desire, resign)
• /z/ in <ˈsVr(C)#, ˈVble#, sit#>: usurp, visible, posit
• /ʃ/ in /s+j/ coalescence (pressure, sensual, ensure)
• /ʒ/ in /z+j/ coalescence (division, measure)

word-finally

• /s/ in <Vs#> (bias, neurosis, …, but /z/ in <ies#>: series, species)
• /z/ in <‘Vse#>: (amuse, noise, raise; but /s/ in: moose).

Beware of -ease: usually /s/
(release, increase, cease, lease, grease, decease), but /z/ in please, disease, tease, ease.

within a cluster
- /s/ with another voiceless C (escape, ask, phonetics; stress)
- /z/ before a voiced C (husband, criticism, chasm, spasm, lens, measles).

• But /s/ if initial (slaughter, smash, snack, snap).
• But /s/ in dis-, mis-, trans- (disgrace, misbehave, translate, disinform).

Beware of the -(e)s suffix:
you will need to mention assimilation, not just graphophonemic rules!!

Beware of /s/ + /j/:
you will need to mention palatalisation!

Question 13

Values of <x></x>

Answer 13

1. /ks/ is the primary (default) value
2. /z/ is the secondary value used in word-initial position (xylophone, xenophobic,
   Xavier…)

The prefix ex-, is pronounced as:
- /ˌeks/ if separable (meaning ‘former’: ex-president, …)

• /ˈeks/ if inseparable but stressed (exercise, expert, excellence, …)
• /ɪgz, egz, əgz/ if inseparable, unstressed and followed by a V
  (exact, exist, exam, exalt, …)
• /ɪks, eks, əks/ if inseparable, unstressed and followed by a C
  (expect, exceed, excuse, …)

Beware of /ks/ or /gz/ + /j/:
you may need to mention palatalisation! (e.g. anxious, obnoxiously, sexual, …)

Question 14

Values of <th>

Answer 14

word-initially
- /θ/ in content words (think, thank, theatre, thin).
But /t/ in Thames, Thompson, Thai, thyme.
- /ð/ in function words (they, this, that, though, thus, there, the, than).

word-medially
- /θ/ in words from Greek or Latin (author, method).
But /ð/ if /m/ follows: rhythm, algorithm.
- /ð/ in words of Germanic origin (brother, feather, leather, weather)

word-finally
- /θ/ in <-th#> (bath, breath, loath, mouth, tooth, truth).
But /ð/ in smooth, booth.
- /ð/ in <-the#> (bathe, breathe, loathe, teethe)

Question 15

Values of <gh></gh>

Answer 15

word-initially
- /g/ (ghost)

word-medially
- /g/ (aghast)
- Silent in <ght> (thought, right, eight, fight, ought, enlighten, nightmare).</ght>

But /f/ in draught.

word-finally
- Silent in <gh#> (though, high, sigh, sleigh, thigh).
But /f/ in enough, tough, laugh, clough; /p/ in hiccough

Question 16

Silent consonants

Answer 16

Word-initial letter

• <kn, gn>: know, knot, knob, knife, gnome, gnaw
• <pn, ps, pt>: pneumonia, pneumatic, psychology, psalm, pseudo, Ptolemy.
• <wh, wr>: who, whose, whom, whole, wreck, write, wrong

Word-medial

• <st + l,m,n>: mistletoe, Christmas, castle, listen, whistle, fasten, glisten
• <bt>: debt, subtle, doubt
  
  </bt>
• <xh>: exhaust, exhibit, exhort
  
  
  
  </xh>

Penultimate letter
- <gm, gn>: paradigm, phlegm, align, design, foreign, sign, design
- <alm, alf, alk, olk>: calm, balm, half, calf, chalk, talk, folk, yolk

Word-final letter
- <mb, mn>: bomb, climb, comb, lamb, thumb, autumn, column, hymn

Question 17

Silent consonants: exceptional cases

Answer 17

1. <h>: heir, honest, honour, hour (NB: ‘VhC: vehicle).
   </h>
2. <w>: two, answer, sword, knowledge.
   </w>
3. <c>: muscle (but /k/ in muscular).
   </c>
4. <ch>: yacht, fuchsia.
   </ch>
5. <p>: coup, cupboard, raspberry, receipt.
   </p>
6. <s>: isle, island, aisle, viscount.
   </s>
7. <d>: grandfather/mother, handkerchief, handsome, landscape,
   sandwich.
   </d>
8. <l>: could, would, should, colonel (=kernel), Faulkner, Lincoln.
   </l>

Question 18

Assimilation of voice in the cases of –(e)s and –(e)d

Answer 18

1. The suffix -(e)s is pronounced as
   - /s/ after voiceless consonants: books
   - /z/ after vowels and voiced consonants: cars, hands
   - /ɪz/ after /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ/: masses, matches
2. The suffix -(e)d is pronounced as
   - /t/ after voiceless consonants: attacked
   - /d/ after vowels and voiced consonant: tried, trained
   - /ɪd/ after /t, d/: waited, mended

-NB: /ɪd/ in adjectives such as: wicked, beloved
- NB: -edly /ɪdli/: markedly, supposedly

Question 19

yod coalescence

Answer 19

Palatalisation of /s,z,t,d + j/

Palatalisation happens systematically in unstressed syllables

• <c, s, z, x>*
• /ʃ/ for palatalisation of /s+j/: especial, pressure, sensual, ensure, luxury, …
• /ʒ/ for palatalisation of /z+j/: division, measure, luxuriant, …

<d, t>
- /tʃ/ for palatalisation of /t+j/: implicature, creature, ritual, mutual, …
NB: /ʃ/ for suffixes of the –ion family starting with <i>: (typically –ion,
-tious, -ial) : nation, information, superstitious, initial…
- /dʒ/ for palatalisation of /d+j/ (less systematic): soldier, educate, …</i>

In some accents of English
palatalisation occurs also in
stressed syllables: tune, dune, assume, resume, …