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Government and Opposition in 1945 Flashcards

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1
Q

Individuals responsible for Hitler’s appointment - Hermann Muller

A

. 26 June 1928 - 27 March 1930
. His Grand Coalition, “a cabinet of personalities” (the SPD, DDP, DVP, BVP, and ZP), had been plagued by internal divisions - the constant bargaining needed to agree ways of tackling economic crisis contributed to weakening of belief in parliamentary institutions
. His resignation led to a more divided Reichstag + more power in Hindenburg + his advisor’s hands

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2
Q

Individuals responsible for Hitler’s appointment - Heinrich Bruning

A

. 29 March 1930 - 30 May 1932
. New type of leadership, dependent on President + use of emergency decree under Article 48
. Forced new finance reform bill by Presidential decree
. When SPD tried forcing him to withdraw measure he asked Hindenburg to dissolve Reichstag
. Elections of Sep: major gains for extremist parties
. Unpopular austerity programme: in 1932 many votes went from him to Hitler

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3
Q

Individuals responsible for Hitler’s appointment - Franz von Papen

A

. 1 June - 17 November 1932
. Chancellor even though him nor his cabinet were in Reichstag previously
. Forced authoritarian control all over Prussia
. Hoped to make govt work by winning Nazi support
. Lifted SA ban in June 1932, placed curbs on Communist press + agreed w Hitler to call new elections in July

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4
Q

Individuals responsible for Hitler’s appointment - Kurt von Schliecher

A

. 3 Dec 1932 - 30 Jan 1933
. Head of German army - fundamentally undemocratic
. Thought democracy an impediment to military power
. Believed Nazi alliance was the only way forward
. Opened negotiations w Gregor Strasser, who was committed to a Nazi ‘social revolution’, though this backfired as Hitler expelled him from party Dec 1932

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5
Q

Individuals responsible for Hitler’s appointment - President Hindenburg

A

. Undemocratic, wanted unlimited power
. Dissolved Reichstag for Bruning July 1930
. Appointed Papen as Chancellor in June 1932
. Dismissed Papen + appointed Schliecher
. Used presidential powers to bypass Reichstag
. Opposed Bruning’s proposals which got him out the Reichstag so Hitler got more power
. Gave Hitler job of Chancellor on 30 Jan 1933

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6
Q

Who voted for the Nazis? - class

A 
. Peasants and farmers
. Mittelstand (lower middle class artisans, craftsmen, shopkeepers)
. Established middle classes e.g. teachers, white collar and public employees bc of savings lost in the Depression
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7
Q

Who voted for the Nazis? - geography + religion

A

. High support North + east, lower in west + south
. East Prussia to Schleswig - Holstein, Nazis gained best results + this reflected via religion + urbanisation
. Catholic areas gave fewer votes, Protestant higher
. Fared worse in large industrial cities but gained more support in rural areas + suburbs
. Less support in Bavaria where they held the rallies

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8
Q

Who voted for the Nazis? - youth

A

. The depression hit when young adults from pre war baby boom came of age and so had little work
. 61% of 20-30yr olds who joined parties were nazis
. The young who filled the ranks of the SS
. Saw Nazism as a movement for change, not a source of respectability

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9
Q

Nazism - a people’s party

A

. Nazis weren’t limited by region, religion or class
. 1932: NSDAP became Germany’s first genuine Volks partei (broad based party)
. Hitler appealed to all sections of German society

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10
Q

The ‘politics of anxiety’

A

. Many Nazi voters lacked faith in the Weimar system
. They believed their role in society was threatened
. “[By 1930] the NSDAP had become a unique phenomenon…, a catch-all party of protest, whose constituents, while drawn primarily from the middle class electorate were united above all by a profound contempt for the existing… system” - T. Childers

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11
Q

Propaganda skills and techniques of Goebbels - Canvassing

A

. Leaflets: tailored to people’s social + economic interests:

  • special benefits offered to farmers + peasants to offset collapse of agricultural prices
  • aiming to overcome depression appealed to industrial workers and unemployed
  • limiting control of large department stores appealed to the Mittelstand
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12
Q

The SA

A

. Growth of unemployment resulted in phenomenal expansion of SA led by Rohm 1921-3 and 1930-4
. Many joined out of desperation for food + housing
. Mainly responsible for violence against opposition eg Communists
. Helped to destabilise already weak Germany, banned for 3 mo in wake of presidential election
. Papen restored it in June 1932

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13
Q

The Stennes Revolt

A

. Hitler became v keen to maintain policy of legality
. Felt it important to keep discipline to show Nazis could offer firm and ordered government
. Walther Stennes, leader of Berlin SA, rebelled against orders of Hitler + Goebbels in Feb 1931
. Defeated but underlined that the relationship w the party and the SA was at times v difficult

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14
Q

Technology

A

. Modern tech exploited: loudspeakers, films and records
. Expensive cars + aeroplanes projected statesman-like image
. 1932: 3 major speaking programmes organised for Hitler: ‘Flight over Germany’.

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15
Q

Mass Suggestion

A

. Mass rallies intended to create an emotional atmosphere, making the crowd succumb to a collective will
. Every device used to heighten effect: uniforms, torches, music, salutes, flags, songs + anthems, and speeches from leading personalities

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16
Q

The 3 key unifying themes that dominated Nazi propaganda

A

. The FuhrerCult: Hitler as a messiah figure, offering authoritarian rule + a vision for Germany’s future
. The Volksgemeinschaft (national community): to appeal to people for the development of a unifying idea regardless of class
. Nationalism: exploit discontent since WWI
- Portrayed themselves as revolutionary + reactionary, destroying the republic, return to bygone age

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17
Q

Scapegoats

A

. ‘November criminals’: the politicians responsible for the Armistice and the creation of the Republic
. Jews: easy to exploit long history of anti-Semitism in Europe
. Communists: the KPD was a sizeable part of 13-17% of the vote in 1930-2 + increasing threat of USSR

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18
Q

How did Hitler create a one-party authoritarian state?

A

. Initially weak: 3/12 cabinet were Nazi + president retained power
. 8 weeks for total control: by Aug 1934, most major German institutions were co-ordinated or neutralised
. “a legal revolution”, terror + a process of co-operation (state surveillance) and compromise w key bodies
. This consolidation of power is Gleichschaltung

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19
Q

Hitler’s Support in Cabinet

A

. Chancellor: superior to other cabinet members, understood by Hitler + basis of ‘all or nothing’ strategy
. Other 2 Nazis in cabinet: - Goering: Prussian Minister of the Interior, direct control over Berlin, purged Prussian govt + police of opponents, appointing Nazi sympathisers in place
- Frick: Minister of the Interior, drew up plans for March election

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20
Q

Hitler’s Strengths

A

. SA + SS intimidated opponents
. Von Blomberg, defense minister, was sympathetic to Nazis + ensured the army didn’t stop terror attacks
. Propaganda by Goebbels complemented campaign of terror, portraying govt’s actions as necessary to deal w national emergency
. Influential right wing elites supported - fear of communism

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21
Q

The Reichstag Fire

A

. Feb 27 1933
. Burnt down by Communist van der Lubbe
. Gave Hitler an excuse to request Hindenburg use an emergency decree, preventing more Communist action
. Helped Nazis extend control over Germans

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22
Q

‘For the Protection of People and State’

A

. Hitler could search, arrest, and censor ‘until further notice’ - extend control over German people
. Nazis could remove opponents before election
. Sent to Dachau: first prototype concentration camp
. No judicial interference - no legal representation

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23
Q

1933 Elections

A

. 5th March - helped create one party state
. Nazis gained 43.9% of vote
. Hitler still reliant on other parties to obtain the 2/3 majority needed to change the constitution
. Right wing DNVP helped + an agreement had to be made with the Zentrum

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24
Q

The Enabling Act

A

. 23rd March 1933 - control Germans
. Allowed Chancellor to issue laws without Reichstag
. Hitler could establish himself as fuhrer
. Achieved goal of Reichstag principle: change Nazis from radical to successful party - once in Reichstag he could destroy democracy from within

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25
Q

Destruction of Trade Unions

A

. May 1933
. All trade unions disbanded and workers forced to join the DAF (German Labour Front)
. Extended power over Germans + led to one party state

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26
Q

‘Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service’

A

. April 1933
. Opponents of Nazis fired e.g. Jews
. Administrative process: replace opponents with sympathisers
. Created one party state

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27
Q

Law against establishment of parties

A

. 14th July 1933

. Created one party state

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28
Q

Concordat with Catholic Church

A

. July 1933
. The Catholic Church is banned from political activity, in return their religious freedom will be upheld
. Created one party state + extended German control

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29
Q

‘Law for the Reconstruction of the State’

A

. January 1934

. Nazis owned all local/federal government

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30
Q

‘Law to Ensure the Unity of Party and State’

A

. December 1933
. Nazis are the only party allowed
. Officially a one party state

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31
Q

Night of the long Knives

A

. June 1934
. 86 SA members killed, including leader Ernst Rohm
. Reichstag made it acceptable for Hitler to commit murder
. Himmler’s SS assumed dominance in Germany + helped Hitler to gain support of army commanders

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32
Q

Constitutional Powers of President

A

. Article 23: dissolve Reichstag
. Article 48: emergency decrees + by-passing the Reichstag’s procedures
. Article 53: appoint Chancellor

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33
Q

Role of Hindenburg in turning Germany into a dictatorship

A

. Constitutional powers
. ‘Presidential’ govt replaced parliamentary govt after fall of Muller’s cabinet
. His military career made him a national hero
. Social position at top of society - national icon
. Blind to how Hitler manipulated him
. His values favoured authoritarianism>democracy

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34
Q

Role of Hitler in turning Germany into a dictatorship

A

. Knew Germans wanted rescue - made scapegoats
. Established Nazi state + popular ideology
. Luck
. Created purpose amid chaos of Depression
. Preached German superiority bc of Aryan race
. Army leaders saw in him the means of re-establishing German military strength

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35
Q

Nazi Ideology - Fascism

A

. Extreme militaristic nationalism
. Want to create one unit of people
. Contempt for democracy + political liberalism
. Strong, vigilant military seen as necessary
. Strength gained from populations experiencing economic suffering

36
Q

“Fuhrerprinzip”

A

. Hitler as supreme leader of Germany
. Political authority in the Third Reich was based on the concept of charismatic leadership centered on the fuhrer principle

37
Q

The Hitler Myth

A

. By Joseph Goebbels who knew that to gain support, people needed to see Hitler as Germany’s saviour
. Cult of personality: Hitler as ordinary but heroic
. Justified stability of Nazi government
. Built on Hitler’s appeal + contrasted selflessness with the self serving, corrupt Weimar politicians

38
Q

The Function of the Hitler Myth

A

. Satisfied emotional need for a strong govt
. Allowed Nazis to claim that Hitler’s personal legitimacy as leader rested not only in the office of Chancellor but also in the will of the people
. Gave real credibility to the principle of authoritarian leadership by identifying Hitler as sole protector of German nation

39
Q

Nazi Ideology - Volksgemeinschaft

A

. Nation + people as a community/national community: common good before personal advancement: a community in which individual is depersonalised, one based on race not class
. Everyone shared genetic inheritance, not inclusive
. ‘One nation, one people, one leader’.

40
Q

Nazi Ideology - Aryan race, Social Darwinism, and Eugenics

A

. Convinced Aryan race was superior
. Drew on ‘science’ of eugenics, advocating action against genetically unfit: disabled
. Also extended to personal practices: homosexuality

41
Q

Nazi Ideology - Traditional German Values

A

. Anti-modern, anti-capitalist, anti-democratic
. Blood + soil: promoted relationship between German blood and soil of Fatherland
. Cult of motherhood: belief that woman’s main role is mother - the Honour Cross of German Motherhood awarded to woman with 4+ children

42
Q

Nazi Ideology - Autarky and Rearmament

A

. Autarky: economic self-sufficiency
. Rearmament took precedence over other objectives
. Being a Volksgenosse (national comrade) was all
. Nazism: ideological revolution, struggle between Aryans and racial enemies
. Struggle, force + violence were eternal Nazi values

43
Q

Nazi Ideology - Patriotism

A

. Nazi ideology was a vague catch all set of beliefs, designed to appeal to patriotic Germans longing for national unity + revival, an end to humiliation, economic weakness + political divisions associated w Weimar democracy
. Nothing radically new in ideology

44
Q

Nazi Ideology

A

. Imperialistic - all true Germans had the right to take land from ‘subhumans’ - e.g. Slavic people
. 200,000+ mentally ill people killed by Nazis

45
Q

How was Germany governed during the Third Reich?

A

. Totalitarianism regime: a highly centralised + intolerant state ruled by a ‘strong’ dictator who controls all aspects of life
. Polycratic: a system of govt made up of overlapping bodies such as ministries, party organisations, and special agencies

46
Q

Hitler’s style of government - Totalitarianism

A

. His power was unrestrained by president/Reichstag, his authority within the party was unchallenged, and the role of lawmaker was effectively just him
. Had a cabinet of loyal ministers to help in formulation + execution of policy, while party + state worked together in such a way that, in the Lander, Nazi-appointed Reich governors ruled to H’s command

47
Q

Hermann Goering

A

. Created military - industrial complex around his roles as head of air force and as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan, forging close links with Germany’s industrial giants, e.g. the chemical firm I.G. Farben, and enriching himself

48
Q

Heinrich Himmler

A

. His power base comprised the whole security apparatus and the Race and Settlement Office, giving him the power + authority to re-shape German society + the occupied territories along racial - ideological lines

49
Q

Joseph Goebbels

A

. Dominated media + access to info through the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda; next to Hitler, he was the voice of the regime

50
Q

Martin Bormann

A

. Headed Party Chancellory + as H’s personal secretary
. Arguably least visible leading Nazi but by end of 1942, the most powerful
. His control of the Party bureaucracy, his power over appointments + promotions, and, his position as the recipient of H’s total trust, made him virtually to Hitler
. The “Brown eminence”: increasingly decided who H saw, managed his appointments + schedule

51
Q

Hitler’s style of government - Polycratic system: confusion and chaos

A

. H often superimposed his party structure on top of existing state structure, creating confusion between overlapping + competing officials and agencies
. Sometimes let Nazi ministers compete
. May have been product of circumstance/deliberately engineered to suit his own ideology in which ‘struggle’ was key
. Only intervened when it suited him

52
Q

Hitler’s style of government - personality

A

. Lazy + uninterested in routine governmental stuff
. Preferred to give speeches than listen to others
. Post 1934 played little part in meetings
. 1933: 72 cabinet meetings, 6 in ‘37, 1 in ‘38
. Hard to access: stayed in Bavarian mountain retreat
. Usually avoided decision making

53
Q

‘Working towards the Fuhrer’

A

. Hitler’s subordinates carrying out policies they believed he’d favour

54
Q

Intentionalists

A

. Believe Hitler always intended to start a war in Europe and exterminate European Jews

55
Q

Structuralists

A

. Believe Hitler’s power in NSDAP was over-stated and that the Fuhrer had no long term plan
. Hitler was an opportunist who made decisions spontaneously, often to maintain his own grip on power

56
Q

Terror State - SS

A

. Established 4th April 1925 led by Himmler
. Symbolised National Socialist Oppression after Night of the Long Knives
. Death’s Head units guarded camps
. Pursue ideological + racial goals of Nazi state

57
Q

Terror State - Einzatsgruppen

A

. Established 1939 led by Himmler then Heydrich
.Carried out killing expeditions in eastern occupied territories, killing tens of thousands of Jews, Slavists, and Communists
. Death squads

58
Q

Terror State - Gestapo

A

. Established 5 Oct 1931, led by Heydrich
. Security service of SS
. Gathered intelligence + surveillance of ideological opponents of National Socialism

59
Q

Terror State - RSHD

A

. Established 27 Sep 1939 by Himmler
. During war it controlled Nazi extermination policy, organising deportation of Jews to SS-controlled exterminations camps
. Maintaining racial purity of the people

60
Q

Terror State - Concentration Camps

A

. Established 1933, led by General Theodore Eicke
. Originally ‘wild camps’ - overflow prisons for 1000s arrested at start of Nazi terror
. Gradually replaced by a network of 25 purpose built camps + 1,200 subcamps
. Imprisoned + killed Nazi enemies

61
Q

Why was there little overt Nazi opposition during peace time?

A

. Hitler’s rapid consolidation of power
. Elimination of political rivals 1933 + 1934
. Success of policies - economic revival bred content
. Gleichshaltung eliminated almost all institutions for opposition
. Only Church + army retained resources to challenge
. Any protest would receive harsh punishment

62
Q

Opposition during peacetime - SPD: Why?

A

. Democratic Party - anti - Nazi demonstrations
. Voted against the Enabling Act in 1933
. The party funds were seized in May 1933
. June 1933: the SPD was forced to disband

63
Q

Opposition during peacetime - SPD: How?

A

. Red Shock Troop: 30,000 members by end of 1933
. Newspaper of same name appeared every 10 days
. Socialist Action (newspaper) circulated in Berlin
. From 1939: focused on collecting info on state of public opinion in Nazi Germany

64
Q

Opposition during peacetime - SPD: How did Nazis respond?

A

. Dec 1933: leaders of RST arrested by Gestapo and put in a concentration camp
. Jan 35: leaders of Socialist Action paper arrested
. By the end of 1938: continued success of Gestapo led the exiled SPD leadership to disband

65
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Communists: Why?

A

. Persecuted by Nazis from beginning after burning of Reichstag fire
. 6th March 1933: their activities declared illegal
. Thought the Nazis would bring political + economic difficulties, paving way for KPD revolution

66
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Communists: How?

A

. 1933-35 around 10% of KPD members were active underground
. Distributed anti-Nazi lit
. Leaflets/papers circulated beer halls + workplaces
. Paper Red Flag: focused on Nazi terror
. Over 1mil anti-Nazi leaflets produced 1933-35

67
Q

Nazi - Soviet Pact

A

. Signed August 1939
. Set back the KPD’s policy which demanded for the creation of a ‘Popular Front’ consisting of all anti-fascist forces inside and outside Germany
. The KPD leadership called for observance of it

68
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Communists: How did Nazis respond?

A

. 1933-39: 150,000 KPD detained + 30,000 killed
. Nazi blackshirts raided working class suburbs to demoralise them
. Pro-KPD newspapers banned, 1.2mil anti-Nazi pamphlets seized in 1934
. 1.67mil anti-Nazi pamphlets seized in 1935

69
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Church: Why?

A

. Catholic schools, youth groups and newspapers were shut down by Nazis despite Concordat in 1933
. ‘Reich Church’ split Protestants up
. Support remained for the Centre Party
. Laws interfering with child birth was opposed by Catholics

70
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Church: How?

A

. Individual clergyman spoke out against Nazi policy
. Pope’s encyclical ‘With burning anxiety’ March ‘37
. Martin Niemoller: ‘Confessional Church’
. Pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer campaigned against Nuremburg laws 1935, joined underground resistance to gather evidence of Nazi crimes

71
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Church: How did Nazis respond?

A

. Members of ‘Confessional Church’ kept under close police surveillance
. Niemoller held in concentration camp 1937-45
. Around 800 other pastors incarcerated in March ‘37
. Vicious press campaign against the Church after ‘With burning anxiety’

72
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Army: Why?

A

. Hitler tried to nazify the military w intensive training schemes
. Disapproved of pace of rearmament, growth of SS and Hitler’s plans for rapid expansion in the East

73
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Army: How?

A

. Army commander in chief Werner von Fritsch and Hitler’s War Minister General von Blomberg criticised the war plans Hitler outlined at the Hossbach Conference of 5 Nov 1937

74
Q

Opposition during peacetime - Army: How did Nazis respond?

A

. 1938: Blomberg and Fritsch dismissed on basis of marrying a prostitute and being gay
. Their departure was followed by the resignation or dismissal of 16 generals
. 44 more were transferred

75
Q

Opposition during wartime - Communists: Why?

A

. After Soviet union invasion 22 June 1941 - resistance revived after Nazi - Soviet pact broken by Hitler

76
Q

Opposition during wartime - Communists: How?

A

. Anti - Nazi pamphlets, publications
. Uhrig group: wanted to defend Soviet Union, tried to sabotage industrial effort of Germany, reduce prod.
. 70 workers in arms factory gave support
. Leaflet ‘The Information Service’

77
Q

Opposition during wartime - Nazi response

A

. Gestapo grew to 10,227 in Oct 1941, collected pamphlets
. Feb 1942 100s arrested + executed, Uhrig executed
. Gestapo intercepted many telegrams + identified Harneck + Boyson, executed 1942
. Closed down ‘Red Flag’, main four arrested 1942

78
Q

Communist resistance on Home Front

A

. Wilhelm Guldorf, John Sieg (American), Martin Weise + Jon Graudenz (Belgian) - active before 1933
. Re - emerged following end of Nazi - Soviet pact
. 1941: anti-Nazi publications ‘Red Flag’ exposed military failure - circulated in industrial areas
. Wanted long lasting change after war

79
Q

Communist resistance - ‘Red Orchestra’

A

. Came after ‘Red Flag’
. Arvid Harnack and Harro Schulze Boysen led it
. Boysen sent info from Luftwaffe to Soviet Union

80
Q

Communist Resistance - Baum Group

A

. Herbert Baum
. Mainly Jewish + young - worked at Siemens in Berlin
. Anti - Nazi lit: The Way Out magazine, anti-Fascist
. 18 May 1942: crashed anti-Soviet exhibition by Geobbels and destroyed propaganda
. Gestapo round up members and tortured them

81
Q

Wartime Opposition - Youth: Why?

A

. Hitler Youth grew less popular as WWII started - all members were being conscripted
. More urban cities were less Nazi and more pro-American/West, which was seen as anti-Nazi

82
Q

Wartime Opposition - Youth: How?

A

. Edelweiss Pirates: working class, fought Hitler youth
. EP subgroup Navajos in Cologne escaped camp + killed head of Cologne Gestapo
. White Rose Movement: Munich uni
. Hans + Sophie Scholl led it, underground distribution of leaflets detailing Nazi atrocities eg in Poland
. 1943: sprayed anti-Nazi slogans on buildings

83
Q

Wartime Opposition - Youth: Nazi response

A

. Hasso Schutzendorf (17) put in a camp + beaten for looking American
. Navajos members executed Nov 1944
. Public execution of youth in Cologne
. Hans + Sophie executed by Gestapo

84
Q

Wartime Opposition - Church: How?

A

. Dietrich Bonhoeffer: work for army, tried to take down Hitler - ‘Operation 7’: get Jews out of Germany
. Catholic Bishop August von Galen condemned Nazi euthanasia programme targeting disabled people
. The Kreisau Circle: Jesuits, aristocrats and socialists against Nazi regime

85
Q

Wartime Opposition - Church: Nazi response

A

. Bonhoeffer was imprisoned and killed
. Movements detected: priests sent to Dachau: 95% of 2720 members sent there, 1034 died
. Kreisau circle broke up by Gestapo in Jan 1944

86
Q

Wartime Opposition - Army: How?

A

. Abwehr: Nazi military intelligence agency rife with resistance, head Admiral Canaris helped Jews
. General Beck organised attempts on Hitler’s life June 1940 - July 1944
. July Bomb Plot: 5000 army officers executed including Ludwig Beck, Hans Oster, and Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg

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