2.1 Political, economic, social, cultural, and ideological trends Flashcards
Wilhelm II
. Arrogant, changeable, neurotic . Breech birth delivery led to partial paralysis of left arm and damage to balance mechanism in ear . Angry and insecure bc of his arm . Bad relationship with parents . Grandmother was Queen Victoria
The Bundesrat
. Had been at the centre of Bismarck’s system
. Upper house of national parliament made up of men chosen by various states. Essentially conservative
. Declined in influence after 1890: increasing no. of bills were first discussed by main political parties, then intro’d to the Reichstag rather than the Bundesrat
The Reichstag
. Negligible power to initiate new laws
. No party or coalition ever formed the govt of the day
. Even a vote of no confidence in the Chancellor had minimal effect
. So, although Germany had universal male suffrage, the Kaiser’s authority in many areas was impervious to popular control
Right Wing Parties
. Relied on by Wilhelm on most issues
. Conservatives, Free Conservatives, National Liberals
. After 1890: voting strength of these was in decline
. 1887: won over 50% of popular vote
. 1912: share of vote was down 26%
. So, imperial govt needed new allies for legislation to be passed
The Centre Party
. Consisitently won 90-110 seats
. Largest Reichstag party until 1912
. Rep Catholics, wide spectrum of socio-political views ranging from conservatism to progressive social reform
. By 1900: pivotal party, allying with left or right
The Social Democrat Party
. Meteoric rise in Wilhelmine era
. Liberated by lapse of anti-Socialist Law in 1890
. Appealed to growing working class
. 1893: won 11% of popular vote, 28% in 1912, becoming largest party in Reichstag
. Adopted Marxist programme in 1891, divided the party
. Many members favoured the minimum programme
. Other political parties saw them as a force for evil
Interest Groups
. 1890s: interest groups became powerful
. Economic lobby groups like the Agrarian League
. Trade unions, national pressure groups
. The Pan German League, the Navy League, and the Colonial Society
The States
. Urbanisation, better comms, influence of ed and military service eroded provincial isolation
. Issues were German, not state issues
. Imperial authority inexorably gained at the expense of that of the states
. Functions of Reich govt expanded, limiting state roles
Prussia
. Landtag, elected by 3 class male suffrage system gave disproportionate political weight to the rich . German Chancellors were Prussian PMs: as imperial chancellors they had to pursue liberal policy, as Prussian PMs they had to respond to Conservative majority
The Army - Rules/Responsibilities
. Officers were selected by regimental commanders who tended to pick men of a like-minded background, remaining a right wing force whose officers often regarded civilians with contempt
. Special status of army prevented modernisation of political system, most civilians admired military virtues and had faith in the army
The Army - how had it changed from Bismarck’s Germany?
. Wilhelm II found it hard to stand up to military chiefs
. Civilian ministers weren’t consulted when the General Staff drew up war plans
. No longer so Prussian dominant or aristocratically led
. By 1913: German army: 800,000; Reserves: 120,000
Structuralist Argument
The political life of Germany was determined by the economy, the power structure, and class conflicts played out by various interest groups . Wilhelm was a "shadow Kaiser", lacked strength to determine coherent policy . Elites tried imposing 'anti-modern' and 'anti-democratic' values on Germany . Elites co-operated with new leaders to maintain their position
The Intentionalist Argument
. Structuralist is too sweeping, exaggerates unity of purpose within the elites
. Junker influence was in decline, even in the army
. Weltpolitik had little to do with social imperialism
. Historians like John Rohl have shown that the Kaiser’s power and influence were considerable when he chose to intervene
Germany - autocratic or democratic?
. German press had considerable freedom and critics of the Kaiser were commonplace
. By early 20th century, Reichstag had fairness in most campaigns
. Govt needed a Reichstag majority to push through legislation + to agree how money was collected/spent
. Given growth in political activity, Germany’s leaders often responded to rather than manipulated public opinion
Economic trends
. German steel production increased nearly 9 fold
. By 1914 German output was near double of Britain’s
. AEG and Siemens dominated world electrical industry
. By 1914 near half of world’s electrical products originated from Germany
. German chemicals industry led the way in production of fertilisers, dyes and pharmaceutical products
. Daimler-Benz manufactured the world’s first marketable automobile
Reasons for German Economic Success
. Population: under 50mil 1890 to almost 68mil 1914
. 1871: 64% lived in country, 1910: 40%
. Coal from the Ruhr, Saar and Silesia, iron ore from Alsace-Lorraine and the Ruhr
. Good railway and education systems
. Higher ed institutes led the world
Industrial Expansion 1871
. Unification boosted economy as: industry could be coordinated easier bc prompt payment of French war compensation (indemnity)
. Currency reform: 72mil marks into German economy: some inflation, but easier for entrepreneurs to borrow + invest in industry
. Result: as many iron works + machine manufacturing companies set up in 4yrs as last 70 combined
. Annual rate of growth of 5% up until 1873
Industrial Expansion 1873-96
. Global trade recession ‘Great Depression’
. German industry hit a bit: no immediate effect bc of German railway expansion, economy was strong
. But economic growth slowed after 1876: reduction in demand for engineering products + textiles
. Started to grow again after 1894
Industrial Expansion 1896-1914
. Expansion of industry: stronger in 1895>1873
. Til 1880s: agriculture 35-40%, industry 30-50% GDP
. Rest was surfaces eg financial and insurance
. 1914: balance swung other way, agric 25%, ind 45%
. Industrial sector annual growth of 4.5%
. 1890-1914: Germany industrial production tripled: by WWI was next to USA + UK as one of world’s leading industrial nations
Coal and Steel Input
. 1871: coal 29.4mil tonnes, steel 0.2mil tonnes
. 1890: coal 109.3mil tonnes, steel 2.2mil tonnes
. 1913: coal 191.5mil tonnes, steel 17.9mil tonnes
Railway Network
. 1871: 21,471km in length
. 1880: 33,838km
. 1890: 42,869km
. 1913: 63,000km
Germany’s Natural Resources
. Huge natural resources: coal from Ruhr, Saar and Silesia
. By 1914 Germany mined 1/4 of the world’s coal
. Iron ore from Alsace Lorraine and the Ruhr
Germany’s Educational System
. Its institutes of higher ed led the world
. As well as offering study in traditional subjects, they made increasing provision for those w technical skills
. 1890-1914: uni enrollments rose from 28,000-60,000
. Uni degree possible for lower middle class
System of Cartels
. In Germany they were seen as a sensible means of achieving economic planning, eliminating competition and promoting efficient large-scale production
. 1875: 8 cartels in Germany
. By 1905: 366 existed
German Banks
. Pursued adventurous policy of generous long term credit facilities for industrial firms
. Representatives often invited onto board directors of firms, cementing close partnership between banking and commercial sectors of the economy
. Instrumental in developing cartels
Strengths of German Agriculture
. 1888: share of GNP about 1/2, 1914: less than 1/4
. Employment dropped from 42-34% 1882-1907
. However protected by govt tariffs so very successful
. Yields + outputs rose: largely due to growing use of machines, artificial fertilisers + scientific methods of stock breeding
. Germany was largely self-sufficient in terms of food
Particular Individuals
. AEG + Siemens dominated world electrical industry
. By 1914 near 1/2 all electrical products from Germany
. Daimler-Benz manufactured world’s 1st marketable automobile
. Krupp had largest company in Europe at beginning of 20th century
Germany’s Growing Population
. Just under 50mil in 1890 to almost 68mil in 1914
. Provided both market + labour force for growing economy
. Internal migration continued unabated as Germans moved from countryside into towns
. 1871: 64% lived in countryside, 1914: 40%
International Trade
. Imports rose from 2.8-10.8bil marks 1880-1913
. Exports rose from 2.9-10.1bil in same period
. By 1914: trademark ‘made in Germany’ was an international symbol of quality
. Trade gap filled by ‘invisible earnings’
. By 1914: Germany worlds 3rd largest creditor nation + German banks established worldwide
. Huge rise in merchant shipping fleet, 1914: German steam tonnage 3 times greater than
‘Invisible Earnings’
. Profits from investments, services, banks, and insurance
Organised Interests - Trade Unions
. Workers joined trade unions.
. Membership of the Free Trade Unions rose 300,000 in 1890 to 2.5mil in 1913.
Another 500,000 belonged to other trade unions
Organised Interests - Central Association of German Industrialists
. Central Association of German Industrialists supported heavy industrial interests (coal, iron + steel)
Organised Interests - Confederation of Industrialists
. Confederation of Industrialists represented firms who manufactured finished goods
Organised Interests - The Agrarian League
. Founded in 1893
. Campaigned for farmer’s interests
Other Organised Interest Groups
. There were organisations for every conceivable economic interest including:
Bankers, Craftsmen, Retailers, and white collar workers
Social Trends - Longer Lives
. Infant mortality fell from 25% in 1870s to 15% 1912
. Compulsory smallpox immunisation intro’d in 1874
. Diptheria serum cut deaths from it from 1/2 to 1/6
. A German man born in 1870s lived to 36, a woman to 38, those born in 1900s lived to 45 and 48
. Increase in hospitals, docs and nurses
