2.2 German Political Developments Flashcards
Leo von Caprivi
. Aristocratic background “von”
. Served in wars of German unification
. Intelligent, mildly progressive
. Talked of a ‘new course’ that involved a more consultative approach to govt and a conciliatory attitude to previously hostile forces
Caprivi - Social Reform
. Concessions made to socialists, Poles, Centrists
. Work prohibited on Sunday, anti-socialist laws lapsed
. Polish schools allowed to use Polish lang
. Reduced working hours for women
. Reforms generally welcomed by left, opposed by Conservative landowners and aristocrats
Caprivi - Tariff Reform
. Reformed 1879 Tariff Act, prompted by wheat shortages that led to rise in food prices
. Negotiated treaties w Austria, Italy, Russia, + smaller states from 1891-1894
. Tariff Act won widespread support in Eastern Prussia: Germany agreed to reduce tariffs on agricultural imports in return for favourable rates for German manufactured goods
Caprivi - The Army Bill
. Reduced period of military service from 3 to 2 years
. Alienated the Left: intro army bill that increased peacetime army strength by 84,000 men
. Angered the Right: army bill defeated
. Caprivi dissolved Reichstag
. 1893 elections: Conservatives+NLs passed army bill
Caprivi - The Agrarian League
. Formed 1893, soon had 300,000 members . Effective pressure group, anti-Semitic . Rabble rousing movement . Mounted anti-Caprivi campaign: called him a socialist . Widespread support in Eastern Europe
Caprivi - Caprivi’s Fall
. Conservative opposition to ‘new course’
. W pressed C to draw up new anti-socialist measures, bc of SPD success in 1893, C refused
. W + Prussian PM made a plan to increase Kaiser’s power + crush socialism
. C talked W out of it but resigned in Oct 1894
Why did Caprivi fail?
. C found Wilhelm hard to work with
. W interfered too much; 1893 elections, SPD won 44 seats + C refused to draw up anti-socialist measures
. Opposition to ‘new course’ from left and right
. Kaiser lost confidence in C and forced him to resign
Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurt
. Bavarian aristocrat, mildly liberal views . Became little more than a figurehead . Catholic but anti-Zentrum party . 'straw doll' for the Kaiser . Prepared to combat 'socialist threat'
Re-organisation of Government
- 1897: three new govt appointees,
. Admiral Tirpitz became Navy Secretary
. Count Posadowsky-Wehner became Interior Minister
. Bernhard Bulow became Foreign Minister - The emergence of this new team came with a new policy, ‘Weltpolitik’
Key Dates: Prince Hohenlohe, 1894-1900
1894: Hohenlohe became Chancellor
1897: Germany began to pursue Weltpolitik
1898: Naval expansion began with passing of a major Naval Bill
1900: Second Naval Bill, more battleships built
Hohenlohe - Reactionary Rule
. 1894+95: govts took action against political revolutionaries.
. SPD offices in Berlin ransacked, party leaders on trial
. Prussians suspected of sympathising lost their jobs
. Wilhelm advocated forcible repression of SPD
Success of Reactionary Rule
. Reichstag rejected efforts to pass anti-socialist law
. By 1897, deadlock between govt and Reichstag
. Govt wouldn’t intro legis. acceptable to Reichstag
. The Crown was exposed to criticism, without protection of ‘ministerial clothes’ as Bismarck warned
Success of Weltpolitik
. Wilhelm II’s support may have come from love-hate relationship with Britain
. Obsessed with avenging himself on his mother’s land
. ‘The English will be brought low someday’
. W said that no major colonial issue must be decided without Germany having a say
Hohenlohe - German Navy Expansion
. Tirpitz built the army to challenge Britain’s
. W + T didn’t think that: Germany needed British support against Russian + French threat or Britain might look for support elsewhere
. T needed Reichstag to give money to build ships
. He created the Navy League, 1898, supported by Alfred Krupp, membership >500,000
Naval Bills
. First bill: 1898, building 16 major ships, carried by 212 votes to 139
. Opposed by right: thought money should go to army
. Left opposed increase in military spending
. Second bill: 1900, build 3 battleships a year for next 6 years
. Passed by a larger majority than first naval bill
Success of German Navy Expansion
. Britain felt threatened, their navy + colonies were the basis of its commercial power + security, wouldn’t allow Germany to be equal
. The League drummed up popular support for naval expansion, putting pressure on the Reichstag
Hohenlohe - Continued Reaction
. 1898: W speech insisting while he was on army maneuvers: anyone who called a strike/prevented someone from working had to be imprisoned with penal servitude
. When Berlin tram workers went on strike in 1900, W: “I expect at least 500 ppl to be shot”, didn’t happen
Sammlungspolitik
. W’s circle favoured a policy of concentration: ‘alliance of steel and rye’
. Nationalist sympathies in opposition to socialism
. Led by elites with wealth + contacts, and supported by members of the middle class
. Shows right wing elites had more influence over W and policies than Hohenlohe himself
Industrialist’s League
. 1895: members from manufacturing and export industries, favoured high tariffs to promote exports
. Aims: to promote manufacturing interests and exports
Forces contributing to Weltpolitik
. Industrialisation created economic demands for getting raw materials and markets beyond Europe
. German nationalists believed Germany’s survival as a leading nation needed a more active world policy
. Pressure groups (Pan German and Navy League) popularised it and pressured govt to pursue policy to the full
Why was Weltpolitik pursued?
. Attempt to put Germany on a par with Britain
. This meant: expanding Germany’s navy;
- Creating a large colonial empire;
- Supporting Germany’s economic interests across the globe
Territory gained by German overseas expansion
. Togoland . Cameroons . German South West Africa . German East Africa . North East New Guinea
Count Bernhard von Bulow
. Aristocratic junker, civil servant, diplomat
. Foreign secretary (1897-1900), favouring adventurous policy and colonial expansion
. Nicknamed the ‘eel’ sucked up to Wilhelm
. The first Chancellor that the Kaiser really trusted
Bulow - Social Reform
. Interior Minister Posadowsky resumed ‘new course’
. Measures designed to win working class support:
- Extension of accident insurance (1900)
- A law making industrial courts compulsory in all large towns (1901). These courts adjudicated in disputes between employers and employees
- Extension of prohibition on child labour (1903)
Bulow - Tariffs
. Agrarian League demanded higher tariffs
. By a huge majority, the Reichstag restored tariffs to the pre 1892 level
. The Centre Party remained the largest party and continued to hold the power in Reichstag
Bulow - Success of the Tariffs
. Left wing parties called for lower tariffs to reduce price of bread
. Bulow worked successfully for a compromise
. Popular opposition to higher tariffs helped the SPD to win nearly a mil extra votes and 26 extra seats in 1903
Bulow - Financial problems
. Mounting costs of maintaining the army, expanding the navy and running the empire resulted in a large budget deficit
. 1905: Bulow proposed a 2 pronged attack on the deficit by proposing an increase in indirect taxes and an inheritance tax
Bulow - Success of Financial Problems
. Centre Party and SPD voted down the indirect taxes, which would have hit ordinary Germans hard
. Conservatives + Centre Party weakened inheritance tax so as to make it financially insignificant
Bulow - 1907 Hottentot Election
. Hottentots + Heroes revolt in German SW Africa (1904 -5) was dealt with poorly, leading the Centre Party to ally with the SPD + others in Dec 1906 to vote against govt’s proposal to provide extra £ for colonial administration. 1907: Bulow dissolved Reichstag
. Conservatives, Free Conservatives, National Libs, Left Liberals formed ‘Bulow Bloc’ coalition
Bulow - Success of 1907 Hottentot Election
. Pro-govt parties did well: campaigning on nationalism, anti-socialism, anti-Catholic
. SPD: disastrous. Centre Party made modest gains
. Bloc was fragile: Bulow removed ministers objectionable to it
. Most Conservatives preferred to co-operate with the Centre Party than ally with Left Lib: nothing in common
Bulow - The Eulenburg Affair
. 1906: Journalist Maximilian Harden published articles exposing many gays high up in German army
. 1907: Harden insinuated W’s bestie/main advisor Prince Phillip zu Eulenberg. Series of trials
. Ring of homosexuals in the German court
Bulow - Success of the Eulenburg Affair
. Bulow was a homosexual and was at risk of being drawn in but managed to avoid it
. Wilhelm’s rep was ruined
Bulow - The Daily Telegraph Affair
. Autumn 1908: article in Daily Telegraph, Wilhelm expressing wishes for closer relations with Britain
. Poor tone, Bulow had given it to an underling in the Foreign Office to check it instead of himself
. Kaiser attacked in press. Harden for his abdication
. Reichstag deputies questioned Wilhelm’s right to make such important statements. Clamours for constitutional changes to reduce Kaiser’s power
Bulow - Success of Daily Telegraph Affair
. Bulow distanced himself from views expressed in article: caught between loyalty to Wilhelm and demands of the Reichstag. He secured a promise from the Kaiser that constitutional formalities would in future be properly respected. Wilhelm’s declaration mollified Reichstag opposition and crisis ended without constitutional change
Bulow - Bulow’s Fall
. W’s trust in him fatally weakened by Telegraph Affair
. Determined to be rid of B
. Naval + colonial expenditure rose, budget deficit rose
. To overcome it, B intro’d finance bill increasing indirect taxation and inheritance tax
. Centre Party supported the Conservative stand to have its revenge on Bulow for his actions in 1906-7
Bulow - Success of Bulow’s Fall
. Indirect taxation increase opposed by the SPD
. Inheritance tax increase opposed by Conservatives
. When the budget proposals were rejected by the Reichstag in 1909, W secured Bulow’s resignation
Count Dietrich von Hulsen Haeseler
. The Chief of the Civil Cabinet
. Died of a heart attack while dancing in a tutu for the Kaiser during hunting during the Telegraph Affair
. News of this further damaged W’s reputation
Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg
. Aristocrat, Secretary for Internal Affairs 1907-1909
. Intelligent Conservative, allowed Kaiser to take personal control over military and foreign affairs
. Faced impossible task of reconciling a budget deficit with demands for increased military expenditure
. Presided over July Crisis that led Germany into WWI
. Resigned in 1917
Hollweg - Political Problems
. Had little support in Reichstag: aligned with right
. 1912 election: distinct shift to left with SPD + growth of Left Liberals winning 110 and 42 seats respectively
. SPD became largest party in the Reichstag
. Had to rely on backroom deals and compromises to get support for govt bills
Hollweg - Success of Political Problems
. His attempts to broaden his Reichstag support only alienated his natural supporters
. Conservative parties denounced him for his weakness while the SPD demanded more reform
Hollweg - Budgetary Problems
. 1912-13: army + navy submitted major expenditure plans as problems of imperial finance + defense came to a head
. New tax solved fiscal crisis
. By 1914 the Reich debt reached 5 bil marks
Hollweg - Success of Budgetary Problems
. Inheritance tax finally accepted
. Tax still opposed by Conservatives who supported military measures + supported by the Socialists who were keen to set the precedent of a property based tax, but disliked military spending
Hollweg - SPD
. SPD deputies remained divided between orthodox Marxists, who maintained revolutionary agenda
. Moderates who believed that the Party’s role was to fight for the improvements of conditions peacefully within capitalist system
Hollweg - Success of SPD
. 1913: SPD deputies supported chancellor’s new taxes, intro’d to cover increase defend expenditure
. SPD deputies were aware that most SPD voters were patriotic and concerned about the perceived threat from Russia, France, and Britain
Hollweg - Nationalist Associations
. After 1912 became more vocal in criticism of German govt for its ‘weakness’ at home and abroad
. By 1914 many extreme nationalists were anti-socialist, anti-Semitic, anti-parliamentarian
. Many believed in Aryan superiority + dreamed of new Bismarck who’d be ruthless, unafraid to pursue aggressive policies against enemies at home/abroad
Hollweg - Success of Nationalist Associations
. “The political maelstrom of radical ideologies out of which Nazism would eventually emerge was already swirling powerfully well before WWI” - historian Richard Evans
Hollweg - The Zabern Affair
. Poor relations between Alsace-Lorraine + Germany
. Friction between local populace and garrison troops
. Zabern: a young officer made remarks about Alsatian troops that were rude + led to demonstrations
. Nov 1913: during 1 disturbance, commanding officer ordered his men to clear the streets. 28 citizens were held overnight in barracks, led to public + official protests: the army was acting above the law
Hollweg - Success of The Zabern Affair
. W ordered soldiers involved be sent on manoeuvres
. Minister of War + H rejected criticism of army on grounds that commanding officers were only responsible to the Kaiser and not the Reichstag
. Vote of no confidence in H, Dec 1913, he dismissed it
. The affair underlined W’s power + showed he couldn’t completely ignore public opinion
Hollweg - Prussian Constitution
. Conservative's position in Prussian Landtag was unassailable . Controlled upper chamber + usually had majority in lower house, which was still elected by outmoded 3 class system
Hollweg - Success of Prussian Constitution
. 1908: SPD won 23% of vote in Prussian election but won only 7 seats
. Conservatives with 16% of vote won 212 seats
. Injustice within the constitution led to increasing demands for reform
Authoritarian Monarchy
. Chancellors less powerful than Bismarck after 1890s
. Bulow knew his position depended on flattering W
. When Chancellors lost W’s confidence had to go
. 1871 constitution placed final authority with Kaiser
. Middle class sided with Establishment even by 1914
. W exerted v personal involvement in govt
Parliamentary Democracy
. W forced to moderate conduct after Telegraph affair
. German govts couldn’t ignore the Reichstag
. After 1890 more debate of govt policy + rise of SPD
. All W’s oppressive schemes stopped by Reichstag
. Reichstag deputies wanted constitutional change
. W wanted to crush SPD but never would in reality
Was Germany at crisis point by 1914? Yes:
. The left believed that time was right for revolution
. 1912 elections showed SPD on rise, scaring right
. Nationalists wanted military coup to smash socialists
. Country divided between left and right
. Strikes on rise, minority groups rebelling
. Germany’s rulers, particularly Bethmann-Hollweg, were pessimistic about the country’s future
Was Germany at crisis point by 1914? No:
. Divisions in 1914 no greater than previously seen: signs that middle parties were willing to work together by 1913 + SPD had given support to a govt finance bill (inheritance tax)
. Talk of military coups in past but nothing happened
. Germany’s economy remained strong
. Elites didn’t pursue war to deflect political opposition
