Globalisation, Green Crime, Human Rights and State Crime Flashcards
1
Q
Define Globalisation
A
The increasing interconnectedness of societies (a locality can be shaped by distant events)
2
Q
Impact on crime due to globalisation
A
More opportunities for crime cross borders to increase
3
Q
What does David Held et al (1999) define globalisation as?
A
‘the widening, deepening and speeding up of world wide interconnectedness in all aspects of life, from the cultural to the criminal, the financial to the spiritual.’
4
Q
What are the causes of globalisation?
A
- the spread of new information and communication technologies
- the influence of global mass media
- cheap air travel
- the deregulation of financial and other markets
- increased competition
- easier movement of businesses
5
Q
What does Held et al suggest has happened to crime?
A
There has been a globalisation of crime.
6
Q
Complete Held At Els sentence on crime:
The same processes that have bought about the globalisation of legitimate activities have also…
A
brought about the spread of transnational organised crime
7
Q
What does globalisation create?
A
new opportunities for crime, new means of committing crimes and new offences e.g, various cyber crimes
8
Q
What does Manuel Castells (1998) argue has happened as a result of globalisation?
A
there is now a global criminal economy worth over £1 trillion per annum
9
Q
What forms does the criminal economy take according to Castells (1998)?
A
- Arms Trafficking
- Trafficking in Nuclear Materials
- Smuggling of Illegal Immigrants
- Trafficking in Women and Children
- Sex tourism
- Trafficking in body parts
- Cyber - crimes
- Green crimes
- International Terrorism
- Smuggling of legal goods
- Trafficking in endangered species
- Trafficking in cultural artifacts
- The drugs trade
- Money laundering
10
Q
What is arms trafficking
A
illegal regimes, terrorists
11
Q
Where is trafficking of nuclear materials common?
A
former communist countries
12
Q
Provide an example of smuggling of illegal immigrants
A
Chinese triads - made an estimated $2.5billion annually
13
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Describe Arms trafficking
A
to illegal regies, guerrila groups and terrorists
14
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Describe the Trafficking in women and children
A
often linked to prostitution or slavery -
15
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Roughly how many woman and children are trafficked to Western Europe annually?
A
Up to half a million
16
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Describe sex tourism
A
Where Westerners travel to poorer countries for sex, sometimes involving minors
17
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Where and Why are organs typically trafficked ?
A
Rich countires for organ transplants
18
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
How many organs are estimated to be taken from condemned or executed criminals in china anually?
A
2000
19
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Desrcibe what is meant by cyber crime
A
such as identity theft and child pornography
20
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
What is meant by green crimes?
A
- Crimes that damage the environment,
- such as illegal dumping of toxic waste in poorer countries
21
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
How has globalisation changed the links surrounding international terrorism?
A
Much terrorism is now based on ideological links made via the internet and other ICT
Rather than on locan territoral links, as in the past
22
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Describe the smuggling of legal goods
A
- such as alcohol and tobacco to evade taxes
- and of stolen goods, such as cars, to sell in foreign markets
23
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Describe the Trafficking in Cultural Artefacts
A
and works of art, sometimes having first been stolen to order
24
Q
Castells - forms of the criminal economy
Describe trafficking in endangered species
A
Or their body parts for example to produce traditional remedies
25
# Castells - forms of the criminal economy
What is the estimated worth of the drug trade annually?
three hundred to four hundred billion dollars
26
# Castells - forms of the criminal economy
What are the profits relating to money laundering from organised crime estimated to be?
$1.5 trillion
27
Global what sides does the global criminal economy have?
a demand side and a supply side
28
What explains part of the reason for the scale of transnational organised crime?
The demand for products and services in the rich West
29
What can the global criminal economy not function without?
A supply side that provides the source of the drugs, sex workers and other goods and services demanded in the west
30
What is the supply side of the global criminal economy linked to?
The globalisation process
31
# The supply side of the global criminal economy
Describe an example of how the supply side of the global criminal economy is linked to the globalisation progress
Third world drug producing countries such as Colombia, Peru, and Afghanistan have large populations of impoverished peasants
For these groups drug cultivation is an attractive option that requires little investment in and technology and commands high prices compared to traditional crops
32
# The supply side of the global criminal economy
Why is drug cultivation and attractive option for Third World countries?
It requires little investment in and technology And commands high prices compared to traditional crops
33
# The supply side of the global criminal economy
What percentage of Columbia population depends on cocaine production for their livelihood?
20%
34
# The supply side of the global criminal economy
Why do 20% of Columbias population depend on cocaine production for their livelihood?
Cocaine out cells all Columbus are the exports combined
35
What new mentality does globalisation produce?
Risk consciousness
36
describe risk consciousness
risk is seen as global rather than being tied to a particular place
37
Explain what risk consciousness is In relation to the increase movement of people as economic migrants seeking work or asylum seekers
has given rise to anxieties amongst populations in western countries about the risk of crime and disorder and they need to protect their borders.
38
What is ‘global risk consciousness’?
Heightened awareness of global threats (terrorism, climate change)
39
What has developed societies risk consciousness
Media's overexaggerated portrayal of the dangers we face
40
How has the media created a risk consciousness surrounding immigration
Media has created a moral panic (extreme public reaction) to a perceived threat to societal values, through negative coverage -> hate crime in Europe for minorities
41
How is ‘global risk consciousness’ linked to migration?
Media sensationalism of migration fuels moral panics, stricter immigration laws, xenophobia.
42
who are moral entrepreneurs?
individuals/groups who seek to reinforce existing norms e.g., politicians
43
Result of Risk Consciousness
Moral Panic -> intensification of social control at a national level
44
Provide UK examples of how social control has been intensified due to risk consciousness
toughened border control regulations -> fining airlines if they bring undocumented passengers + no legal limit of immigration detention time
45
Provide EU examples of how social control has been intensified due to risk consciousness
countries with land borders have introduced fencing/CCTV/thermal imaging to track illegal border crossing
46
What is a global result of global risk consciousness
Increased attempts of international cooperation through 'five eyes alliance' which is intelligence sharing on the movement of terrors, drugs, and crime (particularly since 911)
47
How has globalisation impacted crime?
It created new opportunities (cybercrime), networks (transnational gangs), and spread criminal activity worldwide.
48
Why does Ian Taylor (socialist) link globalisation to capitalism?
Capitalist globalisation intensifies inequality, fosters crimes of desperation and corporate exploitation.
49
How did the global shift impact home countries of TNCS
TNCs -> switched manufacturing to low wage countries -> job insecurity, unemployment and poverty
50
Explain how deregulation had further extenuated poverty after TNCs
Free rein given to market forces -> govts have little control over their own economies (cant create jobs or raise taxes) -> states spending on welfare declined
51
How has marketisation undermined social cohesion?
Encouraged people to view themselves as individual consumers, calculating the costs and benefits of each action -> undermined social cohesion
52
How do Left realists note on globalisation driven capitalist crime?
this increasingly materialistic culture (promoted by the global media) portrays success in terms of a lifestyle of consumption.
53
How do these factors (success=consumption, TNC's moving, Deregulation, Marketisation) make the poor turn to crime?
Creates class insecurity -> lack of legitimate job opportunities -> destroyed self respect -> drives the unemployed to look for illegitimate ones
54
give an example of an illegitimate jobs do the poor turn to
lucrative drugs trade -> In Los Angeles, deindustrialization -> growth of drug gangs numbering 10,000 members
55
How does deregulation create criminal opportunities for elite groups?
Deregulation of financial market -> opportunity for insider trading + movement of funds around the globe to avoid taxation.
56
How does the creation of transnational bodies create criminal opportunities for elite groups?
creation of European Union -> opportunity for fraudulent claims for subsidies, estimated at over $7 billion per annum in the EU.
57
How has new patterns of employment due to globalisation led to crime?
-> increased use of subcontracting to recruit 'flexible' workers, often working:
1. illegally
2. employed for less than the minimum wage
3. working in breach of health and safety.
58
Explain a criticism of Taylor's (socialist) theory
-Does not adequately explain how the changes make people behave in criminal ways e.g, not all poor turn to crime
59
What is the criticism for the deregulation impact of capitalist based crime?
deregulation -> new industries and opportunities -> provide employment + encourage skill development among workers -> better positioned to compete in a global economy + reduce labour roles
60
Explain how the global shift (TNCs moving to low-wage countries) has benefits for impoverished communities
although it may not benefit the home country of the TNC, it can provide various employment opportunities + economic benefits for its new Host country.
61
What are ‘crimes of globalisation’?
Offences by international financial bodies (IMF, World Bank) enforcing policies that harm poorer nations.
62
Who examines the role of IGO's in crimes of globalisation?
Rothe and Friedrichs (2015)
63
Who are the IGO's dominated by?
Superpower nations - major capitalist states e.g, World Bank has 188 member countries, yet 5 (USA, France, Britain, Germany, Japan) hold a third of the voting rights.
64
Why do Marxists see the IMF/World Bank as criminal?
they impose (pro capitalist) structural adjustment programs on poor countries as a condition for the loans they provide
65
How does imposing structural adjustment programs on poor countries impact the country?
These require governments to:
1. cut spending on health and education
2. privatize publicly owned services (water supply), industries and natural resources.
66
What are ‘crimes of globalisation’ in practice?
1. Imposing debt
2. pushing privatization
3. ignoring human costs in pursuit of neoliberal reforms
67
What is the benefit of structural adjustment conditions in poor countries?
Allows western corporations to expand into these countries -> investments in infrastructure, eduction...
68
Explain how these adjustment programs imposed by IGOs leads to crime
Rothe et al (2008) -> adjustments in rwanda in the 80s caused mass unemployment + created economic base for the 1994 genocide.
69
Who argues that the IMF and World Bank act as a global state?
Maureen Cain (2010)
70
What does Maureen Cain (2010) suggest?
IMF and world bank act as a global state, and while they do not break laws, their actions cause widespread harm.
71
What is the direct and Indirect harm that IMF and World bank cause?
direct - welfare spending cuts
indirect - unemployment, declining access to privatised resources
72
What is a criticism of ‘crimes of globalisation’?
Hard to define legally, as IMF/World Bank policies aren’t always illegal but can cause massive harm.
73
# Patterns of criminal organisation
What is Winlow's study of bouncers in Sunderland
shows a decline of traditional manual jobs. This means that men cannot assert their masculinity. Bouncers in de- industrialised Sunderland found opportunities to commit crimes through illegal drug dealing and violence.
74
# Patterns of criminal organisation
What was another local study that showed similar results?
Hobbs and Dunningham study of a post-industrial town.
75
# Patterns of criminal organisation
How did Hobbs and Dunningham's study link to globalisation?
The way crime is organised is linked to the economic changes brought by globalisation.
76
# Patterns of criminal organisation
In Hobbs and Dunningham's study what did their findings show
Individuals with 'contacts' acted as a hub -> formation of a loose knit network (composed of individuals seeking opportunities) this linked legitimate and illigitimate activities.
77
# Patterns of criminal organisation
Hobbs and Dunningham say they studied a small scale organisation, what was their example of a large scale organisation in comparison?
Heirachical 'mafia' style criminal organisations of the past, such as Kray Brothers in East End, London
78
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
What is ‘glocal organisation’?
Criminal networks that are locally based but connected to global crime networks (e.g., local gangs with international ties).
79
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
How does Hobbs describe glocal criminal structures?
flexible networks combining global links (drugs, people trafficking) with local contexts.
80
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
What did Hobbs and Dunningham conclude that crime works as?
A 'glocal' system - The form that crime will take varies from place to place, according to local conditions, even if it is influenced by global factors eg availability of drugs.
81
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
What change from globalisation (according to Hobbs and gunningham) -> changed patterns of crime and how
The shift from old rigidly heirachical gang structure to loose networks of flexible, opportunistic entrepreneurial criminals.
82
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
Criticisms of Hobbs and Gunningham
1. It is not clear if the criminal pattern (loose, flexible) is new, nor that the older (heirachical) structure has disappeared. Perhaps they have always coexisted.
2. Equally, their conclusions may not be generalisable to other criminal activity elsewhere.
83
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
Another example of the relationship between globalisation and criminal organisations is...
McMafia
84
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
Who came up with the term McMafia
Misha Glenny (2008)
85
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
What is McMafia (Glenny)?
Organisations emerging after the USSR collapse, selling protection/criminal services globally in a capitalist market.
86
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
Where does Glenny (2008) trace the origins of transnational organised crime to?
The break up of the Soviet Union after 1989, which coincided with the deregulation of global markets
87
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
How had the fall of communism (USSR collapse) led to the formation of oligards
-under communism, soviet state regulated prices of everything
-Following fall of communism, Russian govt deregulated most sectors of the economy
88
# Patterns of Criminal Organisations
Why is it called ‘McMafia’?
It operates like a franchise, using a business model with global brand recognition and standardised ‘services.’
89
What is green crime?
Crimes against the environment, from pollution to wildlife trafficking, harming ecosystems and humans.
90
Why is green crime called ‘global’?
Environmental harm crosses borders—pollution or deforestation in one region affects others globally.
91
What is ‘global risk society and the environment’?
Beck’s idea: industrial society creates new ecological risks (climate change, toxins) that threaten everyone.
92
What is ‘traditional criminology’ on green issues?
It studies law-breaking that damages the environment but only if it’s legally defined as crime.
93
Why does green criminology expand beyond legal definitions?
Some harmful acts aren’t illegal; green criminology views all harm to the planet as relevant.
94
What is an ‘anthropocentric’ view of harm?
Human-centered: environment is a resource to exploit for growth, often ignoring ecological consequences.
95
What is an ‘ecocentric’ view of harm?
Sees humans and environment as interdependent, stressing the intrinsic value of ecosystems.
96
Who is a key figure in green criminology?
Rob White, who argues we should study harm rather than just legal infractions against the environment.
97
What are primary green crimes (South)?
Direct harm to the environment: air pollution, deforestation, species decline, water pollution.
98
Example of air pollution as a green crime?
Industries releasing toxins, causing global warming, health problems, yet often under-regulated.
99
Why is deforestation a primary green crime?
Logging destroys habitats, contributes to climate change, displaces indigenous communities.
100
How does species decline link to crime?
Poaching, illegal trading, and habitat destruction push species to extinction, breaching conservation laws.
101
Why is water pollution classed as green crime?
Dumping toxic waste, chemical spills, sewage contamination harm marine life, threaten water supplies.
102
What are secondary green crimes?
Crimes growing from breaking rules aimed at preventing environmental disasters (e.g., toxic waste dumping, bribery).
103
Example of state-linked secondary green crime?
Governments ignoring environmental regs, colluding with corporations to cut costs, harm ecosystems.
104
What is meant by ‘disposal of toxic waste’?
Illegally dumping or exporting hazardous waste to low-income countries to avoid strict regulations.
105
How can ‘violent protest policing’ be a secondary green crime?
States may use brutal methods against eco-activists, violating human rights to protect corporate interests.
106
Why do some argue green criminology is too broad?
By focusing on harm rather than law, it can blur boundaries of what counts as ‘crime.’
107
What is a benefit of green criminology’s approach?
It highlights significant harms (e.g., oil spills) often not punished under traditional law.
108
What is state crime?
Illegal or deviant actions by governments or state agencies (e.g., genocide, torture, corruption).
109
Why is state crime so serious?
The state wields enormous power, can conceal its actions, and can harm thousands or millions.
110
What four categories of state crime does McLaughlin (2001) identify?
Political, economic, social/cultural, and crimes by security/police forces.
111
Example of political state crime?
Censorship, rigging elections, or persecuting opponents to maintain power.
112
What is an economic state crime?
Official corruption, misusing public funds, or state-corporate collusion costing taxpayers billions.
113
Social/cultural state crime example?
Institutional racism, forced assimilation policies, or mass discrimination by state agencies.
114
What are crimes by security forces?
Genocide, torture, war crimes, extrajudicial killings carried out by military/police units.
115
Why is the scale of state crime huge?
States have extensive reach, resources, and can victimise entire populations.
116
What does it mean that the state is the source of law?
The government defines criminality, potentially excluding its own actions from that definition.
117
Why can prosecuting state crime be difficult?
States control justice systems, manipulate definitions of crime, block investigations.
118
What is ‘state-corporate crime’?
Illegal or harmful acts from partnerships between government and businesses (e.g., awarding contracts with bribes).
119
Example of state-corporate crime?
The NASA/Challenger disaster (1986), where cost-cutting and ignoring safety warnings led to fatalities.
120
Why do critics see the Challenger disaster as crime?
Violations of safety protocols by state and corporate entities put profit above lives.
121
What are war crimes?
Actions violating international rules of war, including indiscriminate bombing, use of banned weapons, civilian massacres.
122
What is genocide in Rwanda (1994)?
Hutus killed about 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus in 100 days, enabled by state propaganda and militias.
123
How does the Rwanda genocide illustrate state crime?
The government actively incited genocide, used radio broadcasts to coordinate killings.
124
Why is the Bhopal disaster (1984) relevant to state-corporate crime?
Union Carbide’s chemical leak killed thousands; Indian state’s lax enforcement and company negligence combined.
125
What is ‘defining state crime’ so problematic?
Some see it as strictly legal wrongdoing; others include human rights abuses and social harms.
126
What is domestic law’s limitation in defining state crime?
States can pass laws allowing their harmful actions, so legality alone may not reflect real harm.
127
What is international law in state crime contexts?
Agreements (e.g., Geneva Conventions) or courts (ICC) that can hold states accountable for atrocities.
128
Why do sociologists use social harms or zemiology?
They argue focusing on harm (not just legality) captures broader wrongdoing by states.
129
How does the concept of human rights fit state crime?
Violations of rights (life, liberty) by governments count as serious state crimes.
130
What is the authoritarian personality (Adorno)?
A personality prone to obedience, respect for authority, aggression to outgroups (linked to fascism).
131
How might the authoritarian personality explain state crime?
Leaders or agents have rigid, hierarchical values, enabling compliance with oppressive regimes.
132
What are ‘crimes of obedience’?
Acts committed under orders, where normal moral codes are suspended to follow authority (e.g., torture).
133
What are Kelman & Hamilton’s (1989) three features of crimes of obedience?
Authorization, routinization, dehumanization—explaining how individuals commit atrocities under instructions.
134
How does modernization (Bauman) link to the Holocaust?
Modern bureaucracy, division of labor, rational efficiency facilitated systematic mass murder.
135
Why does Bauman say the Holocaust wasn’t a ‘breakdown of civilization’?
It was a product of modern rational processes, not a lapse into barbarism.
136
What is ‘evaluation’ of modernity as an explanation for genocide?
It’s useful but not all genocides rely on high-tech bureaucracy (e.g., Rwanda had direct mass killings).
137
What is the ‘culture of denial’ (Cohen)?
States try to cover up or re-label their human rights abuses, denying or justifying them to the public.
138
According to Alvarez (2010), why is denial growing?
Human rights pressure from NGOs (Amnesty, HRW) forces governments to hide or spin abuses.
139
What three-stage ‘spiral of state denial’ does Cohen describe?
1) It didn’t happen. 2) If it did, it’s something else. 3) If it did, it’s justified.
140
How do states use ‘techniques of neutralisation’ (Cohen)?
They deny victim (“terrorists”), deny injury (“no harm”), deny responsibility (“obeying orders”), condemn critics, appeal to higher loyalty.
141
Why do these neutralisations matter?
They normalise abuses, letting perpetrators evade guilt and public condemnation.
142
What is ‘denial of victim’?
Claiming the victims were threats or criminals, so harm is deserved.
143
What is ‘denial of injury’?
Arguing no real harm occurred or it was minimal (e.g., “they’re fine”).
144
What is ‘denial of responsibility’?
Shifting blame to higher command, saying “just following orders.”
145
What is ‘condemning the condemners’?
Attacking those who criticise the abuse, accusing them of bias or hidden agendas.
146
What is ‘appeal to higher loyalty’?
Claiming a greater cause (nation, religion, security) justifies violating rights.
147
Which country used ‘stress positions’ and ‘waterboarding’ but denied it was torture?
The U.S. argued these weren’t physically or psychologically damaging enough to be torture.
148
Why does Cohen see this as neutralisation?
It aims to normalise harsh interrogations by framing them as less severe than actual torture.
149
What is the ‘topic summary’ on p.140 about globalisation and state crime?
Globalisation fosters transnational crime, green harms, insecurities, and states can violate rights under various justifications.
150
What is ‘transnational organised crime’?
Trafficking drugs/people, money laundering, often facilitated by global interconnectedness.
151
How does de-industrialisation link to insecurity?
Job losses, urban decline can push some into illegal economies or extremist groups.
152
What is ‘glocal’ criminal organisation?
Fluid networks bridging local and global aspects, with flexible ‘franchise’ structures.
153
What is the significance of living in a ‘global risk society’?
Human-made threats like pollution, nuclear disasters affect everyone, heightening fear and control.
154
What is green criminology’s core idea?
Study harm against the environment, not just legal definitions, addressing climate crisis and species loss.
155
How does the state hold power to commit massive abuses?
It controls armies, policing, legislation, can orchestrate war, genocide, oppression.
156
What is the impact of ‘social harms or human rights’ definitions of crime?
They broaden criminology’s scope, including state transgressions not always labeled ‘crime.’
157
How do authoritarian personalities fit with state crime?
They facilitate unquestioned obedience, enabling officials to commit abuses in hierarchical systems.
158
What role does re-socialisation play in atrocities?
Training agents to adopt violent norms, leading to crimes of obedience (e.g., soldier brutality).
159
How does modernity enable large-scale crimes?
Bureaucratic structures, advanced tech, rational planning can organise extermination or mass harm.
160
What is the ‘culture of denial’ in modern democracies?
They must justify or hide human rights abuses, since outright refusal is harder under media scrutiny.
161
Why does Cohen see state justifications as a ‘spiral of denial’?
They shift narratives to reduce accountability at each stage of exposure.
162
What does Cohen mean by ‘torture lite’?
Techniques like hooding, sleep deprivation, waterboarding, framed as less severe than classical torture.
163
Why is condemnation not enough to end state abuses?
States can deflect blame or spin events, and many acts occur in secret, requiring structural changes.
164
How does ‘globalisation bring transnational organised crime’?
Tech, travel, trade allow trafficking networks, money laundering, and illicit flows worldwide.
165
What does ‘de-industrialisation and insecurity’ lead to?
Economic decline, unemployment, crime as alternative income, social discontent, extremist appeals.
166
How is ‘green criminology’ critical of capitalist expansion?
Capitalism prioritises profit over planet, creating pollution, deforestation, waste crises.
167
What are ‘authoritarian personalities’ historically linked to?
Fascist regimes (Nazi Germany), where obedience and scapegoating flourish under extreme authority.
168
How can ‘re-socialisation’ produce criminals?
Military or police training can normalise violence, eroding moral constraints.
169
What is ‘modernity’s link to genocide’ in Bauman’s view?
Rational planning, efficiency, bureaucratic distance enable systematic mass murder (e.g., Holocaust).
170
Why is the ‘culture of denial’ vital to studying state crime?
It shows how states manipulate public perception, hide evidence, or shift blame for atrocities.
171
How does the ‘topic summary’ explain green criminology?
It highlights new crimes (toxic waste, deforestation) and the need to redefine harm beyond legality.
172
How does modern society’s focus on progress tie to environmental harm?
Industries chase growth, ignoring sustainability, creating long-term ecological crises.
173
Why might states ignore green crimes?
Economic interests, political alliances, corruption, or reliance on polluting industries.
174
How do critics challenge green criminology?
They say it’s too normative, lacking clear legal boundaries, making enforcement difficult.
175
What drives state crime under capitalism (Marxist view)?
Protecting capital interests, suppressing dissent, exploiting resources for profit.
176
What is a moral panic around migration?
Exaggerated media narratives framing migrants as threats, increasing public fear and surveillance.
177
Why might transnational corporations evade accountability?
Operating across borders, they exploit weak regulation, shifting blame or moving operations.
178
What leads some countries to commit war crimes?
Geopolitical ambitions, perceived threats, ideology, lack of international oversight.
179
How can NGOs combat state crime?
Research, expose abuses, lobby governments, mobilise international pressure for accountability.
180
What does it mean that states sometimes define opponents as ‘terrorists’?
A neutralisation tactic to justify harsh measures, claiming self-defense or security.
181
Why are the IMF and World Bank seen as imposing ‘structural violence’?
Their policies can force cuts to healthcare/education, harming vulnerable populations.
182
How does globalisation connect to drug trafficking?
Open borders, global markets, and demand-supply chains facilitate large-scale smuggling.
183
What is the difference between primary and secondary green crimes?
Primary = direct harm to environment (pollution); secondary = law-breaking to bypass environmental regs.
184
Why are businesses accused of ‘ecocide’?
They cause massive, irreversible environmental damage (oil spills, deforestation), akin to ‘killing’ ecosystems.
185
How does the notion of ecocentrism shift blame?
It sees humanity and nature as equal, so harming nature is as criminal as harming humans.
186
What is a key feature of conflict subcultures in a global context?
Overlaps with global drug trade, arms trafficking, responding to local poverty with global supply.
187
How do states justify war crimes using ‘higher loyalty’?
Claiming national security or moral duty to protect society, even if methods are brutal.
188
Why is denial of human rights widespread in dictatorships?
Rulers use censorship, repressive forces, and propaganda to hide abuses and silence critics.
189
What role does the ICC (International Criminal Court) play?
It prosecutes individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, if local courts fail.
190
How do strong welfare states reduce crime and insecurity?
They meet basic needs, limiting desperation-driven crime and lessening support for extremist groups.
191
What is the significance of moral entrepreneurs in labeling green crimes?
They campaign to define certain environmental harms as urgent moral issues or crimes.
192
How do international agreements (e.g., Kyoto Protocol) tackle green issues?
They set emission targets, encouraging states to reduce pollution—but lack strong enforcement.
193
Why might corporations offshore polluting activities?
To avoid stricter regulations in home countries, shifting environmental harm to weaker states.
194
What is an example of ‘internal corruption’ as state crime?
Embezzlement by high-level officials, siphoning public funds for personal gain.
195
What happens when states use ideology to label opponents?
They justify repression by branding dissenters as enemies, traitors, or terrorists.
196
How does Cohen see modern democracies justifying torture?
They redefine it as ‘enhanced interrogation,’ or claim it’s rare, essential for national safety.
197
What is ‘routinization’ in crimes of obedience?
The action becomes part of a routine, done mechanically without moral reflection.
198
How can dehumanization facilitate genocide?
Portraying target groups as ‘vermin’ or ‘subhuman’ removes moral barriers to killing.
199
Why is official condemnation sometimes symbolic?
States or global bodies may denounce abuses but avoid real intervention or sanctions for political reasons.
200
What is the link between globalisation and smuggling networks?
Cheaper travel, digital communication, global demand, all make smuggling easier and more profitable.
201
What did Downes and Hansen find about welfare spending and imprisonment?
Countries with higher welfare spend have lower incarceration rates, suggesting less strain.
202
How might the Holocaust exemplify modern rationality in mass murder?
Detailed planning, bureaucracy, technology used systematically to exterminate millions.
203
Why is the Rwandan genocide more a direct example of ethnic violence?
Less bureaucratic, more communal killings spurred by hate propaganda, machete attacks.
204
What is the aim of environmental discrimination research (South, 2010)?
To show how minorities/poor communities face disproportionate pollution, health hazards.
205
How does green criminology address climate refugees?
They’re victims of environmental harm forcing migration, often lacking legal protections.
206
What does zemiology ask regarding state harm?
It questions if certain legal state practices still cause great social harm and should be condemned.
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How is war justified under ‘legitimate defense’?
States present invasions or bombings as protecting national security, overshadowing civilian costs.
208
Why do states sponsor paramilitaries?
To do dirty work (assassinations, violence) while maintaining deniability, avoiding direct blame.
209
How does the media shape fear of environmental crises?
Sensational coverage of disasters or pollution can spark panic or calls for stricter laws.
210
What is Bauman’s warning about modern ‘efficiency’?
It can be used for humane progress or mass atrocity, depending on political aims.
211
How does the spiral of denial end for some regimes?
International courts or public outcry eventually expose truths, leading to trials or sanctions.
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Why might labelling theory be relevant to state crime?
Those in power define crime, can label opponents as criminals, while downplaying own atrocities.
213
What does the text mean by ‘security etc.’ in the summary?
It references how states justify repressive measures in the name of protecting national security.
214
Why do some nations remain silent on ecological harm?
Economic interests, foreign investment, or bribes overshadow green concerns.
215
What can be concluded about globalisation, green crime, and state crime?
They are interconnected issues requiring broader definitions of harm and global accountability.
216
How does the ‘culture of denial’ facilitate repeated abuses?
Without full accountability, states continue harmful actions, confident they can dodge blame.
217
Why is it challenging to measure state crime?
Data may be classified, victims intimidated, and official stats manipulated.
218
What is an example of an NGO exposing environmental harm?
Greenpeace documenting illegal whaling or toxic dumping, pressuring governments to act.
219
How do left realists approach global/state crimes?
They stress inequality, social justice, and supporting communities to reduce both conventional and state crime.
220
What does ‘evaluation of green criminology’ highlight?
It broadens the scope of crime, but definitions can be ambiguous, complicating enforcement.
221
Why is traditional criminology limited in understanding green crime?
It focuses strictly on legally defined environmental crimes, ignoring harmful acts not legally criminalised, thus missing significant ecological harms.
222
What are examples of crimes of species decline?
Illegal animal trafficking, hunting endangered species for profit, and illegal fishing, all undermining biodiversity.
223
Why is water pollution a global green crime?
Pollution doesn't respect national boundaries; chemical spills in one country contaminate rivers and oceans, impacting global marine biodiversity and human health.
224
What is 'state violence against oppositional groups'?
States commit violence or assassinations against environmental activists or indigenous groups protesting harmful environmental policies, framing them as threats.
225
Why is illegal toxic waste disposal a secondary green crime?
It involves breaking laws or regulations intended to prevent ecological harm, often through corruption or bribery, causing severe environmental damage.
226
How do states deny green crimes (Cohen)?
They claim environmental damage is minimal, accidental, or necessary for economic development, neutralising accountability.
227
How does globalisation facilitate trafficking networks?
Improved transport infrastructure, communication technologies, and deregulated trade create easy routes and cover for trafficking people, drugs, and weapons.
228
How do transnational corporations evade responsibility for crime?
They exploit weak regulations in developing countries, shifting harmful operations offshore to evade stricter environmental or labour laws.
229
Why do states define opponents as 'terrorists'?
To justify harsh security measures and rights violations under the pretext of national security or self-defence, neutralising moral objections.
230
Why might globalisation increase extremist appeals?
Economic decline and unemployment from de-industrialisation create insecurity, leading some groups to exploit discontent, recruiting people into extremism.
231
How can media coverage of environmental issues lead to moral panics?
Sensationalist reporting on environmental threats (e.g., climate crisis) may lead to exaggerated public fears, triggering extreme policy responses.
232
How does state-corporate crime affect accountability?
Collaboration between governments and corporations creates mutual protection, complicating the prosecution of environmental, economic, and human rights violations.
233
Why are IMF/World Bank policies considered structural violence?
Policies enforcing cuts in public spending cause severe harm (e.g., healthcare, education loss), disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations.
234
Why is human rights a more inclusive definition of state crime?
It captures serious violations (e.g., censorship, oppression) even if states do not legally classify them as crimes, thus broadening accountability.
235
What is an example of social/cultural state crime?
State policies enforcing forced assimilation, such as banning indigenous languages or cultural practices, causing significant psychological and cultural harm.
236
Why is international law limited in addressing state crimes?
Powerful states often evade accountability due to geopolitical influence, lack of enforcement, or refusing recognition of international courts (e.g., ICC).
237
How do authoritarian personalities enable state crimes?
They foster unquestioning obedience, facilitating acceptance of oppressive policies, making it easier for states to commit widespread abuses.
238
How does re-socialisation lead to crimes of obedience?
Training military or security personnel normalises violence, making them more likely to commit abuses like torture or extrajudicial killings without moral qualms.
239
What does 'routinization' mean in crimes of obedience (Kelman & Hamilton)?
Acts of violence become routine and bureaucratic, performed mechanically without ethical reflection, reducing perpetrators' feelings of responsibility.
240
How does dehumanization facilitate mass atrocities?
Victims are portrayed as subhuman or vermin, removing moral barriers and making atrocities easier to justify (e.g., genocide).
241
Why might condemnation alone fail to end state abuses?
States often deflect blame, conduct abuses secretly, or rely on symbolic gestures without meaningful reform, perpetuating impunity.
242
Why do states sponsor paramilitary groups?
To conduct violence covertly, maintaining plausible deniability and distancing official state institutions from human rights abuses or war crimes.
243
How do moral entrepreneurs influence green criminology?
They campaign for specific environmental harms to be recognised as moral or criminal issues, shaping public perceptions and potentially influencing legislation.
244
Why do critics argue green criminology is too normative?
It expands beyond clear legal boundaries, making it difficult to determine precisely what constitutes criminal harm, complicating enforcement and prosecution.
245
How does environmental discrimination occur (South, 2010)?
Marginalised or poor communities disproportionately face environmental hazards like pollution or industrial waste due to discriminatory policies or neglect.
246
Why do left realists advocate welfare to reduce crime?
They believe strong social safety nets reduce poverty and inequality, addressing root causes of crime and decreasing reliance on criminal or extremist networks.
247
Why is measuring state crime challenging?
Governments control information, intimidate witnesses, manipulate crime data, and use secrecy to hide evidence of abuses.
