Control, Punishment and Victims Flashcards
What does this topic focus on within crime and deviance?
It shifts from criminals’ actions to methods of preventing crime, through situational or root-cause strategies.
What are two main approaches to crime prevention covered here?
Situational crime prevention and social/community prevention.
How does Ron Clarke (1992) define situational crime prevention?
A ‘pre-emptive’ approach reducing crime opportunities by managing or altering the immediate environment.
What are three features of situational crime prevention, according to Clarke?
1) Target specific crimes
2) Manage or change the immediate environment
3) Increase the effort/risks of crime.
What is ‘target hardening’?
Measures like locks, alarms, CCTV to make targets harder to penetrate, raising effort for offenders.
Why do situational approaches focus on opportunity rather than root causes?
They assume criminals act rationally, weighing costs and benefits before deciding to offend.
What critique do situational approaches face from those highlighting root causes?
They ignore social factors like poor socialisation or poverty, offering no long-term solutions.
What is ‘displacement’ in crime prevention theory?
When crime moves elsewhere or changes form due to target hardening in one area.
Name four types of displacement as outlined by Chaiken et al (1974).
1) Spatial
2) Temporal
3) Target
4) Tactical (and sometimes Functional).
What example illustrates successful target-hardening but also displacement?
NYC subway robberies fell after crackdowns, but offenders simply shifted to street robberies.
How is the Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York an example of situational crime prevention?
Physical design changes (e.g., small sinks, better layout) cut opportunities for thefts, drug use, and sleeping.
Why do some criticise the ‘successes’ of situational crime prevention?
Reductions may be short-term or displace crime, not necessarily cutting overall crime rates.
What is environmental crime prevention linked to?
‘Broken Windows’ (Wilson and Kelling), zero tolerance policing, tackling signs of disorder.
Explain the ‘broken windows’ thesis briefly.
Visible disorder (e.g., graffiti, vandalism) suggests nobody cares, inviting more crime and antisocial acts.
How does zero tolerance policing work in practice?
Minor incivilities are tackled aggressively to prevent escalation, aiming for cleaner, safer streets.
What successes are often attributed to zero tolerance policing in New York?
Major crime drop in the 1990s, including homicide rates halving from 1992 to 1996.
List some criticisms of zero tolerance policing.
- Crime was already falling
- Overemphasis on petty crimes
- Ignores social causes.
What is social and community crime prevention about?
Tackling root causes (e.g., poverty, poor housing) rather than just the immediate crime environment.
Why do sociologists like left realists support social/community prevention?
They see addressing inequality, marginalisation, and poor socialisation as crucial to reducing crime.
Which famous early-childhood project exemplifies social/community prevention?
The Perry Pre-School Project in Michigan.
Summarise the Perry Pre-School Project.
Low-income 3-4-year-olds received a high-quality pre-school program, leading to lower lifetime arrests and higher earnings.
Why is addressing root causes sometimes criticised or neglected?
Results are less immediate, and policymakers often prefer quick-win approaches like police crackdowns.
How do functionalists view the role of crime prevention generally?
They see it as strengthening social bonds by reinforcing norms (through punishment or boundary maintenance).
How does Foucault’s view of surveillance differ from the functionalist view?
He sees it as a new form of disciplinary power controlling people, not just deterring crime but shaping behaviour.
What is Foucault’s key example of surveillance design?
The Panopticon—a prison design where inmates can be observed without knowing if they’re watched.
Why does Foucault think modern society moves from sovereign power to disciplinary power?
Punishment shifts from spectacle (public executions) to surveillance and control of the mind/body.
What is the ‘dispersal of discipline’?
Social control spreads beyond prisons to schools, factories, asylums, regulating everyday behaviour.
What critique do some have of Foucault’s emphasis on surveillance?
They say he exaggerates its reach. Not everyone is fully controlled; people can resist.
How do feminists like Koskela (2012) criticise CCTV?
They see it as the ‘male gaze,’ possibly enabling voyeurism rather than guaranteeing safety for women.
What does the term ‘synoptic surveillance’ (Mathiesen, 1997) mean?
The many watch the few—media and ordinary citizens now surveil powerful groups, reversing top-down control.
What is an example of citizens surveilling authority?
Filming police wrongdoing on phones (Mann et al. call it ‘sousveillance’).
What are ‘surveillance assemblages’ (Haggerty & Ericson, 2000)?
Different technologies (CCTV, databases, biometrics) combining to track ‘data doubles’ of individuals.
What is actuarial justice (Feeley & Simon, 1994)?
A new ‘technology of power’ focused on preventing future crimes by calculating risks for groups, not individuals.
How does actuarial justice differ from traditional disciplinary power?
It doesn’t aim to rehabilitate, only to predict and manage risk—like an insurance approach.
Give an example of actuarial justice in practice.
Airport security profiling based on known ‘risk factors’ (age, gender, ethnicity) to decide who is searched.
How do left realists view increased surveillance in public spaces?
They support measures that reassure communities but caution against targeting specific groups unfairly.
What two types of punishment aims are discussed?
Reduction (deterrence, rehabilitation, incapacitation) and retribution (payback).
Why is retribution sometimes called ‘payback’?
Because it’s society’s vengeance—offenders ‘deserve’ to suffer for violating moral codes.
What is the functionalist perspective on punishment (Durkheim)?
Punishment upholds social solidarity and shared values, reaffirming moral boundaries.
How did Durkheim link punishment to societal evolution?
Traditional societies use retributive justice (harsh, collective vengeance), modern societies use restitutive justice (aiming to restore order).
What is the Marxist view on punishment under capitalism?
It serves ruling-class interests, protecting private property and controlling the workforce.
According to Rusche and Kirchheimer (1939), how is punishment shaped?
By economic interests—prisons become the main form of punishment when wage-labour is key in capitalism.
How does imprisonment exemplify capitalism’s approach to punishment?
It removes ‘unruly’ people from the workforce, reinforcing control and discipline over labor.
What is the current trend in imprisonment, according to the text?
Rising prison populations—leading to what some call the ‘era of mass incarceration.’
Why is mass incarceration seen as a growing phenomenon, especially in the US?
Tough policies led to huge increases in prison numbers, often affecting minority communities.
What is transcarceration?
The blurring of institutional boundaries—people moving between care, criminal justice, mental health, etc.
Name one alternative to prison policy highlighted in the text.
Community-based punishments (probation, community service) instead of custodial sentences.
Why do critics question the effectiveness of alternatives like community service?
They often run alongside high prison rates, so they can become ‘add-ons’ rather than real prison substitutes.
What is meant by ‘the victims of crime’ in this section?
It examines who is most likely to be victimised, the impacts of victimhood, and how victims are treated.
Define positivist victimology.
It seeks patterns in victimisation, focusing on characteristics or actions that make victims more vulnerable.
What did early positivist victimology often emphasise (e.g., Wolfgang, 1958)?
Victim proneness or victim precipitation—how victims might trigger events leading to their victimisation.
Why is this approach sometimes criticised?
It can ‘blame’ victims, ignoring wider social causes like inequality or power differences.
What is critical victimology?
It examines how victim status is constructed by power, focusing on structural factors (poverty, patriarchy) and how the state labels (or denies) victims.
How do Marxists or feminists see the label ‘victim’?
Often controlled by the state, which can deny or grant victim status depending on wider power interests.
Why might the poor, young, and ethnic minorities face higher victimisation rates?
They live in areas of high unemployment or deprivation, have less protection, and are over-controlled by authorities.
What do official statistics show about repeat victimisation?
A minority of people suffer a majority of incidents—if you’ve been a victim once, you’re likely to be again.
Give an example of the impact of crime on victims.
Emotional trauma, fear, disrupted sleep, depression, or physical injuries.
What is secondary victimisation?
Further harm by the criminal justice system (e.g., rape victims poorly treated by police or courts).
What is fear of victimisation?
Anxiety about becoming a victim, affecting daily routines—sometimes disproportionate to actual risks.
How do surveys show differences in fear of crime between men and women?
Women often fear attack in public, but young men are at higher risk of violence from strangers.
Why is female fear of crime sometimes criticised by feminists?
They say it focuses on women’s ‘passivity’ rather than structural threats like patriarchal violence.
In sum, how do left realists want to reduce victimisation?
By tackling inequality, marginalisation, and inadequate policing, improving community trust and protections.
What does the ‘topic summary’ say about the approaches to crime control?
Situational focuses on reducing opportunities, environmental on broken windows, social on root causes, while Foucault sees new disciplinary surveillance.
How is punishment viewed from different perspectives?
Functionalists see it as boundary maintenance; Marxists see it as preserving ruling-class power; others see rehab or deterrence.
What is the overall message on victims in this textbook section?
Certain groups suffer more risk, and victimhood can bring further harm (secondary victimisation, fear, blame).
Which theory argues situational prevention doesn’t address deeper social causes like inequality?
Left realism criticises it for ignoring root causes of crime.
How does zero tolerance policing differ from traditional approaches in handling minor incivilities?
It imposes immediate, strict penalties for petty offenses to prevent further disorder.
According to the text, why does surveillance operate not just in prisons but throughout everyday life?
Disciplinary power is dispersed, shaping behaviour in schools, workplaces, and public spaces.
What is a practical reason some states prefer situational/environmental approaches to crime?
They can show quick, visible results (e.g., reduced vandalism) for politicians seeking public approval.
How do critics question the claimed success of “Broken Windows” policing?
They argue crime was already declining and that broader socio-economic factors were more influential.
What does the era of ‘mass incarceration’ particularly highlight about the prison system?
It indicates prisons are used increasingly, especially in societies like the US, often harming minorities.
How might positivist victimology inadvertently blame victims?
By focusing on “victim proneness” or “precipitation,” implying they contributed to their victimisation.
Which sociological perspective focuses on how the label of ‘victim’ can be denied to some by the state?
Critical victimology, examining power and structural inequalities.
How is “risk management” (actuarial justice) in policing sometimes criticised?
It profiles specific groups, potentially reinforcing stereotypes and discrimination.
Why do critics say alternative sentences (e.g., community service) haven’t curbed prison expansion?
They often supplement, not replace, imprisonment, leading to net-widening rather than reduced jail use.
What is ‘populist punitiveness’ as mentioned in debates on punishment?
It’s when politicians claim to be tough on crime to gain public support, pushing harsher sentences regardless of their actual effectiveness.
How does Braithwaite’s concept of ‘reintegrative shaming’ differ from punitive approaches?
It labels the act (not the offender) as wrong, aiming to reintegrate rather than stigmatise offenders, reducing future crime.
Why might purely situational methods be termed ‘band-aid’ solutions?
They tackle symptoms (opportunities for crime) but ignore deeper structural issues like inequality or poor socialisation.
How is the concept of ‘penal populism’ linked to rising prison rates?
Public demand for tougher sentences feeds political agendas, leading to longer prison terms and ‘mass incarceration.’
What is one key rationale for victim compensation schemes?
They aim to offer financial or practical support to those harmed, recognising the state’s duty to assist victims of crime.
Why do some sociologists see community sentences as part of ‘net-widening’?
Offenders who might have been cautioned or fined receive stricter controls (e.g., probation), increasing overall supervision rather than replacing prison.
What do left realists suggest about policing and community relations?
Building trust through local engagement and tackling social issues can encourage cooperation and reduce alienation that leads to crime.
Which groups often remain invisible in official victim statistics?
Groups like undocumented migrants or sex workers, who may not report crimes due to fear of police or stigma.
What is a criticism of some restorative justice programs?
They can be unevenly applied, sometimes benefiting offenders more than providing real healing or restitution for victims.
How does the state’s definition of a ‘victim’ affect crime data and policy?
The state decides who is ‘officially’ recognised as a victim, influencing statistics, resources, and the public perception of victimhood.
What is an example of situational measures succeeding outside crime, per the textbook?
Switching Britain’s gas supply in the 1960s to less toxic gas cut suicides with no displacement.
Why does this gas‐supply change matter in situational prevention debates?
It shows removing one easy method can lower overall incidents without offenders shifting elsewhere.
What does ‘environmental crime prevention’ target, besides physical disorder?
It tackles signs of decline (e.g., broken windows), assuming they encourage more serious offending.
What did Wilson & Kelling say about unchecked minor incivilities?
They invite more disorder, causing crime to spiral if not addressed promptly.
What is one criticism of ‘Broken Windows’ policing from a social perspective?
It may criminalise the poor and ignore root causes (unemployment, inequalities) behind incivilities.
How did the Environment Agency address offences in the NW of England (2000–12)?
They prosecuted 98% of environmental offences (like pollution), showing crime prevention beyond policing.
What does ‘What is missing?’ refer to in the textbook’s discussion of prevention approaches?
It highlights how these strategies haven’t deeply considered the definition and scope of ‘crime’ itself.
How does Foucault’s ‘sovereign power’ differ from ‘disciplinary power’?
Sovereign power punished the body (public, brutal), while disciplinary power regulates and controls minds.
Why did punishment shift from ‘spectacles’ of violence to discipline of the mind, per Foucault?
Modern states wanted more efficient, subtle control, shaping individuals’ behaviour rather than inflicting pain.
What is Foucault’s ‘dispersal of discipline’?
Disciplinary power spread beyond prisons into schools, factories, and hospitals to regulate everyday life.
Why do critics say Foucault ignores inequalities in surveillance?
He overlooks how class, gender, or ethnicity affect who is most watched and how people can resist.
What does Mathiesen’s (1997) ‘synopticon’ add to Foucault’s concept?
It shows many can watch the few (e.g., media/public scrutinising politicians), not just top‐down control.
How might bottom‐up ‘sousveillance’ fail to shift power, according to McCahill (2012)?
Authorities can confiscate recordings, maintaining established hierarchies despite citizen surveillance.
Give an example of ‘surveillance assemblages’ (Haggerty & Ericson, 2000).
Combining CCTV, facial recognition, databases to produce ‘data doubles,’ tracking people digitally.
What is the principle behind ‘actuarial justice’ (Feeley & Simon, 1994)?
Managing risks by profiling groups statistically, not focusing on individual guilt or rehabilitation.
How does actuarial justice differ from older forms of punishment?
It aims to predict future offending and manage risk, not correct or morally reform offenders.
What is ‘sovereign power and adaptation’ in Box 2.3 referencing?
The historical shift from public, corporal punishment (sovereign) to modern disciplinary controls.
Why do Marxists see punishment as shaped by economic interests?
It defends ruling‐class property, controlling the labor force under capitalism.
What is ‘transcarceration’?
People circulate between different control agencies (care homes, psychiatric institutions, prisons).
Why do alternatives like probation often lead to ‘net widening’?
They become extra layers of control, bringing more people under surveillance instead of reducing prison.
How does David Garland (2001) define ‘mass incarceration’?
Locking up large groups for minor offenses, especially in the US, creating a new penal system scale.
How is ‘mass incarceration’ seen as linked to political agendas?
Politicians use tough sentencing to appear ‘tough on crime,’ fueling prison growth.
What are ‘waves of harm’ from hate crimes mentioned in the text?
They extend fear beyond the direct victim, intimidating entire minority communities.
What did Pynoos et al. (1987) discover about child witnesses of a sniper attack?
They showed grief‐related trauma and behavioral changes lasting at least a year after the event.
How does secondary victimisation affect victims, per feminist views?
Poor treatment by police/courts adds trauma, effectively a second violation by the system.
Which groups are more likely to be under‐protected yet over‐controlled in victimisation?
Ethnic minorities, the young, and homeless, who often distrust or face bias from authorities.
How did Newburn & Rock (2006) highlight victimisation among the homeless?
12 times more likely to experience violence; 1 in 10 had been urinated on while sleeping rough.
Why might male homicide rates be high but women still fear crime more?
Men face stranger violence, but women often fear sexual or domestic violence, reinforcing anxiety.
What is ‘repeat victimisation’ according to the British Crime Survey?
4% of population experience 44% of all crimes; if victim once, higher chance of future victimisation.
How does victimisation potentially cause social isolation?
Fear leads to staying indoors, avoiding public spaces, weakening community bonds.
Why do critical victimologists say the label of ‘victim’ is socially constructed?
The state and power structures decide who gets recognised and can claim help or compensation.
How can hate ‘message’ crimes challenge society’s value system?
They target not only individuals but also the norms of tolerance, shaking the moral foundation of society.
Why do sociologists argue fear of crime can be irrational?
Media amplification and stereotypes inflate risks, causing disproportionate anxiety in certain groups.
Which approach tries to reduce crime by improving community trust and tackling social deprivation?
Social and community prevention, often advocated by left realists.
Why is ‘victim proneness’ (in positivist victimology) controversial?
It suggests victims contribute to their victimisation, risking victim‐blaming.
How do feminists view ‘mass rape as a weapon of war’?
A form of extreme patriarchal violence, targeting women’s bodies to terrorise a community.
Why is female victimisation often linked to patriarchal power structures?
It arises from broader inequalities that normalise male control and aggression against women.
How does age link to victimisation risk across the life course?
Teenagers face street crime, older people risk hidden abuse in care settings, but overall risk drops with age.
Why might official victim data underestimate some experiences?
Certain groups (e.g., undocumented migrants, sex workers) may not report crimes due to fear or stigma.
What do left realists say about improving victim support?
Enhanced witness protection, better police‐community relations, and addressing socio‐economic roots.
Summarise final stance on victimisation patterns.
Poverty, youth, and ethnic minorities have higher victimisation risk; fear and impacts can be severe.
