Functionalist, Strain and Subculture Theories Flashcards
What is the basic functionalist view of crime and deviance?
Functionalists argue that society is based on a value consensus, a general agreement on norms and values that fosters social solidarity.
They see crime and deviance as threatening social stability but also inevitable.
Why do Functionalists see crime as beneficial?
-it can reinforce norms
-define boundaries
-drive social change
Why do functionalists argue deviance is found in all societies?
No society can perfectly socialise all members into the same norms and values. Individuals differ in lifestyles, and modern societies are especially diverse, guaranteeing some level of deviance.
define shared culture
A set of norms, values, beliefs, and goals that produce social solidarity.
According to Durkheim, what unites society at its core?
A shared culture - Durkheim called this the collective conscience, and it underpins the value consensus on which society is built.
What two processes help society achieve social solidarity, according to Durkheim?
1) Socialisation: instilling shared norms and values in individuals.
2) Social control: reinforcing conformity via sanctions—rewarding compliance and punishing deviance—to maintain order.
Why is crime considered ‘inevitable’ for Durkheim?
Because not everyone is equally socialised into the collective conscience, and modern societies have complex divisions of labour and multiple subcultures, leading to some degree of anomie (normlessness). Thus, crime/deviance is an unavoidable aspect of social life.
What key term does Durkheim use to describe a state of normlessness?
He uses the term anomie—a situation where individuals lack clear guidelines due to weakened or unclear norms and values.
Why does modern society tend towards anomie in Durkheim’s view?
A specialised division of labour makes people’s roles and lifestyles very different, which in turn weakens the collective conscience and the clarity of shared norms, thus increasing deviance.
In Durkheim’s words, how did he describe the normality of crime in 1893?
He stated: “crime is normal … an integral part of all healthy societies.” This underscores Durkheim’s belief that deviance is found everywhere and can have positive functions.
What is Durkheim’s first identified ‘positive function’ of crime?
Boundary maintenance—crime provokes condemnation from society, which reinforces shared norms and moral boundaries, uniting members against wrongdoing.
How does the punishment of crime reinforce society’s boundaries?
Punishment does not aim solely to remove criminals but to dramatise wrongdoing and reaffirm society’s shared moral code. By publicly punishing offenders, society strengthens its collective values.
How can the media contribute to the boundary maintenance function of deviance?
By publicising and sensationalising crime (often creating “folk devils”), the media highlights deviance and amplifies the condemnation. This warns others and reaffirms moral boundaries.
What is Durkheim’s second identified ‘positive function’ of deviance?
Adaptation and change—when existing norms are challenged by deviant acts, it can spark social progress if society adapts. Deviance can thus introduce new ideas or push boundaries in beneficial ways.
Why is deviance necessary for social change, according to Durkheim?
Every social innovation or reform initially breaks existing rules. If all deviance were suppressed completely, societies would be stagnant and would never evolve or improve.
Why does Durkheim say neither too high nor too low a level of crime is desirable?
- Too much deviance can destabilise society and weaken social bonds.
- Too little deviance suggests an overly repressive society that stifles individual freedom and innovation.
What is Kingsley Davis’s (1937; 1961) example of a positive function of deviance?
He viewed prostitution as a “safety valve” for releasing men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the nuclear family, thus potentially preserving that institution.
How does Ned Polsky (1967) see deviance as positively functional?
He argued that pornography acts as a safe channel for sexual desires, potentially preventing more damaging acts like adultery.
What is Albert Cohen’s view on deviance as a warning sign?
High rates of certain deviant behaviours (e.g., truancy) can indicate that a social institution (like the education system) is malfunctioning, thus alerting society to underlying problems.
What does Kai Erikson (1966) say about society’s relationship with crime?
If deviance performs vital functions for society (e.g., reinforcing boundaries), society may be organised to maintain a certain level of crime rather than eliminate it entirely.
According to Erikson, what role might agencies of social control actually play?
They can perpetuate deviance by labelling certain acts or groups as deviant, effectively maintaining the problem they claim to combat. This ensures deviance remains at a consistent level.
In what ways do some societies manage deviance rather than trying to eliminate it?
They permit deviance in specific, time‐limited contexts (e.g., carnivals, festivals, ‘wild’ youth rites) so that deviance can be contained and not disrupt broader social order.
Why is there a criticism that Durkheim’s theory doesn’t specify the ‘right amount’ of deviance?
Durkheim never provides a metric or guidelines for determining when deviance crosses from “functional” to “dysfunctional,” leaving his notion somewhat vague.
How might “crime strengthening solidarity” fail to explain the real causes of crime?
Just because deviance can unite society doesn’t mean it exists for that reason. Factors like inequality, marginalisation, or personal motives better explain why people actually break the law.
How can deviance actually lead to isolation rather than unity?
Rising crime can breed fear, prompting people to stay indoors, distrust neighbours, or move away, which in turn decreases social cohesion instead of strengthening it.
Why do critics question who deviance is functional for?
Crime might benefit society as a whole in an abstract sense, but it often harms victims or marginalised groups. Functionalists sometimes overlook these unequal impacts of deviance.
Who devised the first strain theory, and when?
Merton in 1938
Which two factors does Merton combine in his explanation of deviance?
1) Structural factors—the unequal distribution of legitimate opportunities.
2) Cultural factors—the strong emphasis on success goals (especially monetary) while placing less emphasis on legitimate means.
What historical event in the USA helped shape Merton’s strain theory?
The Wall Street Crash (1929) and subsequent Great Depression, which revealed huge gaps between the cultural emphasis on success and the realities of limited opportunities.
In Merton’s strain theory, what cultural factor drives deviance?
The intense focus on achieving money success (the “American Dream”), where achieving wealth is paramount, often overshadowing ethical or legitimate considerations.
What structural factor does Merton highlight as creating pressure to deviate?
The unequal access to legitimate means (e.g., quality education, career pathways) that makes it difficult for many to reach culturally prescribed success goals legally.
Which two elements produce what Merton calls the ‘strain to anomie’?
1) The culturally prescribed goal of success/wealth.
2) The limited opportunities available for achieving it, causing frustration and a potential turn to illegitimate means.
Why is the American Dream central to Merton’s explanation?
It promises meritocratic advancement through hard work, yet many face systemic barriers (e.g., poor schools, discrimination). This discrepancy creates strain, pushing some into deviance.
How does blocked opportunity produce crime, according to Merton?
When legitimate avenues (like education, stable employment) are blocked, individuals experience frustration and may adopt illegitimate means (crime) to achieve society’s success goals.
What does Merton say about “winning the game” in American society?
Winning (i.e., achieving money success) is often prized over “playing by the rules.” This means people prioritize outcomes over the ethical or lawful ways of achieving them.
How many possible adaptations to strain does Merton identify?
Five adaptations:
-conformity
-innovation
-ritualism
-retreatism
-rebellion
What is ‘conformity’ in Merton’s scheme?
Accepting both society’s goals (money success) and legitimate means (e.g., higher education, hard work). This is the most common, non‐deviant response.
Which social group is most likely to adopt conformity?
Mainly middle‐class individuals who have better access to educational and occupational opportunities, enabling legitimate success.
What is ‘innovation’?
Accepting society’s success goal but rejecting legitimate means in favour of new, often illegal methods (e.g., theft, fraud) to reach material success.
Who is most likely to adopt innovation?
Those in lower‐class or marginalised positions who lack the same legitimate opportunities as the middle class, but still desire money success.
What characterises ‘ritualism’?
People who give up on the broader success goal yet rigidly adhere to legitimate routines. They follow the rules without expecting significant upward mobility or wealth.
Which class is typically associated with ritualism?
Often lower‐middle‐class individuals in repetitive or dead‐end jobs, who maintain respectable behaviour but have lost ambition for higher success.
What is ‘retreatism’ in Merton’s typology?
Rejecting both society’s success goals and the legitimate means, effectively dropping out of mainstream culture. Examples: chronic alcoholics, drug addicts, vagrants.
How do retreatists differ from ritualists or conformists?
Unlike ritualists, retreatists have rejected following any norms. Unlike conformists, they do not share mainstream aspirations. They are often isolated and disengaged.
What is ‘rebellion’ according to Merton?
Rejecting the current goals and means but replacing them with new ones, seeking a transformative social change. Rebellious groups want to restructure society fundamentally.
Who might exemplify rebellion?
Political radicals, revolutionary movements, or subcultures (e.g., certain counterculture groups) that propose an alternative social order.
How does Merton account for the high rate of property crime in American culture?
The cultural obsession with material success leads many to “innovate”—pushing property offenses (theft, burglary, fraud) as common ways to attain money illegally.
Why does Merton believe crime rates are higher among the lower classes?
They face the biggest gap between cultural goals (wealth) and legitimate means (quality education, stable jobs), creating greater strain that fosters deviance.
What is one criticism of Merton’s reliance on official statistics?
They overrepresent working‐class street crime and underrepresent crimes by middle or upper classes (e.g., white‐collar or corporate crime).
What do Marxists say Merton overlooks?
They argue he ignores the power of the ruling class in defining laws that target poor people’s deviance while being more lenient on elite crimes, thus criminalising poverty.
Which types of crime receive little explanation under Merton’s model?
Non‐utilitarian crimes (e.g., vandalism, violence) and large‐scale or corporate/state crimes that aren’t directly about individual monetary gain.
Why is Merton said to ignore the role of group deviance?
He focuses on how individuals adapt to strain, rather than how collective deviant subcultures form or operate (e.g., gangs).
In contrast to Merton, how do subcultural strain theories view deviance?
They emphasise deviance as a group phenomenon: when people (especially youths) can’t succeed via mainstream values, they join or create subcultures with alternative norms.
What is the main argument of subcultural strain theories regarding blocked opportunity?
That when legitimate routes to success are blocked, people develop collective solutions—subcultures that offer an alternative path to status or reward.
Who proposed an influential subcultural strain theory focusing on working‐class boys?
Cohen in 1955.
What does Cohen criticise about Merton’s approach to deviance?
He says Merton focuses too heavily on utilitarian (money‐oriented) deviance and overlooks group or non‐financial forms of delinquency, particularly among youths.
Why do working‐class boys experience status frustration, according to Cohen?
They fail in a middle‐class‐dominated school system (lacking cultural capital and success at official standards), causing a sense of status deprivation and frustration.
How do these boys resolve their status frustration, in Cohen’s view?
They invert mainstream values by joining a delinquent subculture that rewards behaviours mainstream society condemns (e.g., truancy, vandalism), thus gaining alternative status.
What is the ‘alternative status hierarchy’ that Cohen describes?
A subculture where deviant activities provide recognition and prestige. Acts like fighting or rule‐breaking become a source of respect, replacing mainstream success criteria.
Why does Cohen’s work offer a better explanation for non‐utilitarian crime than Merton’s theory?
He shows how deviant acts (e.g., vandalism) can be about status and acceptance in a subculture, not purely about monetary gain or material need.
What assumption about shared goals in youth does Cohen make that some critics question?
He assumes working‐class boys start by sharing the middle‐class success goals but fail. Critics argue they may have distinct values from the outset, not simply an inversion of middle‐class aims.
Which pair of sociologists extended Merton’s ideas with their own subcultural strain theory in 1960?
Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin.
On what key point do Cloward and Ohlin agree with Merton?
They share Merton’s view that lack of legitimate opportunities (for money success) leads to deviance—but they also consider differing illegitimate opportunities.
What crucial factor do Cloward and Ohlin add that Merton and Cohen do not focus on?
The existence of different illegitimate opportunity structures—not everyone with blocked legitimate means has the same access to criminal pathways (e.g., organised crime vs. drug subcultures).
What three types of deviant subculture do Cloward and Ohlin identify?
1) Criminal subcultures
2) Conflict subcultures
3) Retreatist subcultures
Where do criminal subcultures typically develop, according to Cloward and Ohlin?
In stable, cohesive neighbourhoods with a longstanding hierarchy of adult crime—offering youth an ‘apprenticeship’ in utilitarian (income-generating) offenses.
What characterises conflict subcultures?
They arise in disorganised areas with high turnover, lacking established criminal networks. As a result, youths often form violent gangs focusing on territorial or status-based conflict.
Who are the ‘double failures’ in Cloward and Ohlin’s model?
Individuals who fail in both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures, pushing them into a retreatist subculture often centred on drugs, alcoholism, or vagrancy.
Why do Cloward and Ohlin’s subcultures receive criticism for drawing clear‐cut lines?
In reality, subcultural boundaries may overlap—some gang members engage in both criminal and conflict behaviours or mix drug use with organised crime, making these categories too rigid.
What additional criticism do Cloward and Ohlin face regarding higher‐class deviance?
They (like Merton and Cohen) focus on working‐class crime, largely ignoring white‐collar or corporate crime committed by middle‐class or wealthy individuals.
Why are theories like Cohen’s and Cloward & Ohlin’s often called ‘reactive theories’?
They propose that subcultures form in reaction to mainstream society’s blockage of legitimate success, suggesting deviant groups emerge due to status frustration with conventional routes.
How does Walter B. Miller (1962) challenge the reactive assumption?
He argues the lower class has its own distinct focal concerns (e.g., toughness, excitement, fate) that do not simply invert middle‐class norms or arise from frustration.
What does David Matza (1964) observe about delinquents’ commitment to subcultural values?
He contends most youths “drift” between conventional and deviant behaviour, indicating they’re not fully committed to an alternative value system all the time.
Which political perspective has drawn from Merton’s ideas on structural inequalities and blocked opportunities?
Left realism, which focuses on how social reforms (e.g., reducing poverty, improving housing) can expand legitimate opportunities and thus reduce crime.
How did Cloward and Ohlin influence policy under President Kennedy in the 1960s?
Their analysis of unequal opportunities informed anti‐poverty programs that sought to create more legitimate avenues for success, thus cutting off some motivation for crime.
What do more recent strain theorists argue about young people’s goals beyond money success?
They note that many youths also seek popularity, respect, autonomy, or fairness. Blocked access to these non‐financial goals can also lead to deviant adaptations.
How can strain arise for middle‐class youths under recent strain theories?
Even they can face blockages in personal or social goals (e.g., peer acceptance, emotional support). When these are unattainable, frustration can manifest as deviance.
Which modern theory focuses on the American Dream’s “anything goes” mentality in pursuit of money success?
Messner and Rosenfeld’s (2001) Institutional Anomie Theory, which argues that the overemphasis on economic success in the USA undermines other social institutions.
Why do Messner and Rosenfeld see high crime rates in the USA as linked to the economy?
They say economic interests dominate all other institutions (family, education), weakening non‐market values. This fosters an “anything goes” mentality where deviance becomes more common.
How does institutional anomie theory argue education is undermined?
Schools increasingly focus on labour market outcomes, pushing economic success above moral or civic aims. This overemphasis on competition and results can fuel deviance.
What did Downes and Hansen (2006) find in their comparative survey of 18 countries?
Nations that invested more in welfare had lower rates of imprisonment, suggesting robust social support systems can reduce crime by mitigating strain.
How does Savelsberg (1995) apply strain theory to post‐communist Eastern Europe?
He observed that as collectivist values eroded and capitalist individualism spread, crime rates increased significantly, echoing the link between strain, capitalism, and deviance.
What is one major contribution of Durkheim’s approach to understanding deviance?
He shows deviance can have functions (boundary maintenance, facilitating change) and is not purely harmful. Crime can reflect the collective conscience at work.
What problem arises when functionalists say deviance can be functional for society?
They risk ignoring or downplaying how victims and marginalised groups are harmed. The bigger societal “benefit” doesn’t account for the unequal distribution of costs.
Why do critics say Durkheim never showed how to determine the optimal level of crime for a society?
Although he mentions too much or too little crime, he gives no specific criteria or method to measure or manage this balance in practice.
How is punishment seen differently by functionalists than by, say, left realists?
Functionalists emphasise punishment’s role in reaffirming collective values, whereas left realists focus on issues of inequality, marginalisation, and the need for rehabilitation.
What is one reason Merton’s theory has enduring influence?
He systematically links cultural goals, structural inequalities, and individual adaptations, making the theory widely applicable to various forms of deviance.
Which deviant adaptation in Merton’s typology is least common?
Rebellion—it requires a full rejection and replacement of both goals and means, often involving organised, ideological movements for societal change.
What does Merton’s concept of ‘innovation’ clarify about white‐collar crime?
Though Merton focused on lower‐class deviance, the logic of “innovation” also applies to middle/upper‐class offenders who use fraud or embezzlement to achieve financial success.
Why is A.K. Cohen’s focus on group delinquency a key contribution to subcultural theory?
He highlights that a lot of youth crime is collective and often non‐utilitarian, which Merton’s individually oriented, money‐focused strain theory largely neglects.
According to Cohen, why are subculture norms sometimes “malicious” or “negativistic”?
Because they invert mainstream values, taking pleasure in what society condemns. It’s a form of rebellion born from deep frustration with mainstream norms.
Why did Cloward and Ohlin label subcultural paths ‘illegitimate opportunity structures’?
They noted that criminal, conflict, and retreatist subcultures offer alternative, structured ways for individuals to achieve status or cope, parallel to (but outside) legitimate means.
How does the ‘criminal subculture’ differ from Merton’s individual innovation?
It involves an organised, group‐based system of illegal activity, often with adult mentors and an “apprenticeship” in utilitarian crime, rather than a lone individual turning to deviance.
What kind of deviance typically emerges in conflict subcultures?
Violent, turf‐based deviance (gang fights, intimidation), fueled by disorganisation and lack of legitimate or stable criminal opportunities in the area.
Why do critics say subcultural strain theories ignore female deviance?
They focus almost exclusively on male, working‐class youth groups, leaving female experiences of strain or subculture underexplored.
What is one reason subcultural theories are labelled as ‘functionalist’?
They assume value consensus in wider society, portraying subcultures as deviating from widely shared mainstream norms and emphasising how these subcultural values arise from structural conditions.
How does Miller’s (1962) view differ from Cohen’s “status frustration” approach?
Miller argues that the lower class has its own, independent subcultural “focal concerns” (e.g., toughness, excitement) that are not simply an inversion of middle‐class goals or the result of status frustration.
What does David Matza mean by ‘techniques of neutralisation’?
They are justifications delinquents use (e.g., denying harm, blaming the victim) that allow them to drift in and out of deviance while still partially accepting mainstream values.
Which sociologist’s term “folk devils” is sometimes used to describe how media reinforce boundary maintenance?
Stanley Cohen (1972). He detailed how moral panics and “folk devils” can unite society in condemning certain groups, reinforcing social boundaries.
How might Durkheim’s idea of boundary maintenance appear in modern contexts?
Social media can rapidly spread outrage, uniting large numbers of people in collectively condemning deviant acts and reaffirming shared norms online.
Why does deviance sometimes bring communities closer together?
A serious crime or moral panic can mobilise collective outcry, reinforcing a sense of shared values and prompting communal support or unity.
How might strong condemnation of a deviant group inadvertently strengthen deviance?
By labelling them as outcasts (“folk devils”), society may push them into further isolation, solidifying subcultural identities and increasing deviant behaviour.
What does Merton’s analysis of the American Dream highlight about cultural pressure?
It shows how intense cultural glorification of success can exacerbate strain for those lacking opportunities, driving them toward illegitimate means.
How do Marxists criticise the way strain theories treat laws?
They argue strain theories ignore how the capitalist ruling class shapes laws to protect their interests and penalise the lower classes, thus framing deviance in class‐biased ways.
What solution do some policy‐makers see in strain theories?
They propose expanding legitimate opportunities (improving education, training, reducing poverty) to alleviate the pressures that push people into deviance.
According to institutional anomie theory, how do other institutions become subservient to the economy?
Family, education, and political institutions adopt a market logic, valuing economic success above social or moral goals, which undermines their socialising functions.
Why is crime said to have risen in post‐communist societies, according to Savelsberg?
The shift from collectivist values to capitalist individualism in Eastern Europe created new strains and opportunities for profit‐driven crime, causing a surge in deviance.
What general conclusion can be drawn from functionalist, strain, and subcultural theories?
All focus on how social structures and cultural pressures create conditions for deviance—whether as an adaptation to blocked opportunities, a response to anomie, or a collective reaction to status denial.
Why do functionalist approaches say deviance can strengthen social integration?
Responding to deviance (through condemnation, punishment) unites conforming members, reaffirming the collective conscience and value consensus.
What is the main disadvantage of purely functionalist explanations of deviance?
They can overlook victims, power inequalities, and how deviance may harm specific groups, focusing too much on the societal benefits of crime.
Which aspect of subcultural strain theories remains influential today?
Their emphasis on group values, peer status, and local opportunity structures as catalysts for deviant behaviour—particularly youth offending.
How do recent expansions of strain theory help explain diverse forms of deviance?
They show that deviance isn’t only about money. People may be driven by blocked goals like respect, popularity, or identity, and thus form deviant subcultures or commit acts beyond purely economic motivations.
