Ethnicity, Crime and Justice Flashcards
What do official statistics indicate about ethnic differences in the criminal justice process?
They show striking differences—Black people are more likely to be imprisoned than other groups.
Why might official statistics not reveal real offending rates?
They reflect involvement in the criminal justice system rather than actual offending, possibly due to policing strategies or discrimination.
What percentage of the UK population do Black people comprise, and what is their percentage in prison?
Black people make up just 3% of the population but 13.1% of the prison population.
What is the prison population proportion for Asians compared to their general population proportion?
Asians make up 6.5% of the population but 7.7% of the prison population.
What does the Ministry of Justice note about Black communities compared to their White counterparts?
Members of Black communities are seven times more likely to be stopped and searched, three and a half times more likely to be arrested, and five times more likely to be imprisoned.
Why are victim surveys useful for identifying ethnicity in crime?
They show that a great deal of crime is intra-ethnic, occurring within ethnic groups.
According to victim surveys, which ethnic group is significantly over-represented as offenders in ‘muggings’?
Black people are significantly over-represented among those identified as offenders in ‘muggings’.
What are limitations of victim surveys?
They rely on victims’ memory, may over-identify Black offenders, only cover personal crimes, and exclude crimes by and against organisations.
According to Graham and Bowling (1995), what were the self-reported offending rates for Blacks, Whites, and Asians?
Blacks (43%), Whites (44%), and lower rates among Indians (30%), Pakistanis (28%), and Bangladeshis (13%).
What did Sharp and Budd (2005) find about drug use among ethnic groups?
Whites and ‘mixed’ ethnic origins had highest self-reported drug use (around 40%), followed by Blacks (28%) and Asians (21%).
How do the findings of self-report studies challenge racial stereotypes?
They suggest Blacks may not be more criminal than Whites, contrary to official statistics.
According to Phillips and Bowling (2012), since when have there been allegations of oppressive policing against ethnic minorities?
Since the 1970s.
What types of oppressive policing practices have minorities faced according to Phillips and Bowling (2012)?
Mass stop and search operations, paramilitary tactics, excessive surveillance, armed raids, police violence, deaths in custody, and a failure to respond effectively to racist violence.
Which two sources indicate minorities are more likely to be stopped and searched?
The British Crime Survey and the Crime Survey for England and Wales.
Under the Terrorism Act 2000, who can police stop and search?
Persons or vehicles whether or not they have reasonable suspicion.
What did Phillips and Bowling (2007) find regarding taser use?
During 2010-14, taser use involved 38,000 Whites and Asians had an 18 in 10,000 chance compared to 6 for Whites.
How did the Macpherson Report (1999) describe the police force after the Stephen Lawrence case?
As institutionally racist.
What explanation do Phillips and Bowling (2012) give for negative stereotypes of minorities by police officers?
Officers hold negative stereotypes about ethnic minorities, leading to deliberate targeting for stop and searches.
What alternative explanation exists for the disproportionate use of stop and search?
Ethnic differences in offending.
Why are Blacks and Asians less likely to be found guilty in court according to the Crown Prosecution Service?
CPS may drop weaker cases presented by police based on racial stereotypes.
Why might minority ethnic groups opt for Crown Court trials rather than magistrates’ courts?
Due to mistrust of magistrates’ impartiality, despite risking harsher sentences.
What did Roger Hood’s (1992) study of five Crown Courts find about convictions?
Even with seriousness and previous convictions accounted for, Black men were 5% more likely to receive custodial sentences.
How long were custodial sentences for Black and Asian men compared to White men?
On average three months longer for Black men and nine months longer for Asian men compared to White men.
According to Hudson and Bramhall (2005), why do probation officers’ reports disadvantage Asian offenders?
Reports are less comprehensive and suggest Asians show less remorse, influenced by stereotypes after 9/11.
What did prison statistics in 2014 reveal about ethnic minorities?
Over a quarter of the prison population were minorities; Blacks four times more likely to be imprisoned than Whites.
Why are Black and Asian offenders more likely to be on remand?
They are less likely to be granted bail while awaiting trial.
How does the U.S. prison pattern compare to the UK’s regarding ethnicity?
Two out of five prisoners in local jails are Black, one in five is Hispanic.
What functional role might ‘folk devils’ play regarding ethnicity and crime?
Media portrayal of minority offenders reinforces social boundaries through collective condemnation.
What criticism exists about Durkheim’s theory regarding ethnicity and crime?
It fails to address real reasons for crime, such as racism or socio-economic inequality, beyond its social integration function.
How do statistics on criminal justice involvement potentially misrepresent ethnic differences?
They might reflect discrimination in policing and sentencing rather than true offending rates.
What does the concept of ‘institutional racism’ imply within criminal justice?
That racism permeates the criminal justice system structurally, affecting decisions beyond individual prejudice.
According to Phillips and Bowling, how do police stereotypes impact stop and search practices?
Stereotypes lead officers to disproportionately suspect and target minorities.
What are the potential outcomes of minority mistrust towards the criminal justice system?
Increased likelihood of choosing Crown Courts, higher convictions, and longer sentences.
How do victim surveys possibly distort offender ethnicity?
Victim surveys often incorrectly identify offenders as Black due to bias or stereotype.
Why might self-report studies offer a more balanced view of ethnicity and offending?
They reveal actual rates of offending among ethnic groups independent of police bias.
What role does media sensationalisation play in the perception of minority crime?
It can exaggerate minority offending, reinforcing negative stereotypes and prejudices.
Why are Asians less likely to be over-represented in crime statistics compared to Black individuals?
Possibly due to differences in socio-economic status, policing strategies, or cultural factors.
What societal issue does high ethnic minority imprisonment reflect?
Broader social inequalities and systemic racism in society and criminal justice.
What do differences in remand rates suggest about minority treatment in the justice system?
Evidence of institutional racism affecting decisions like bail and pre-trial detention.
How might institutional racism impact sentencing and convictions?
Through discriminatory practices influencing judicial decisions and sentencing lengths.
Why are minority ethnic youths disproportionately represented in crime statistics?
Possible discriminatory policing, socio-economic deprivation, or institutional biases.
How might ‘stop and search’ practices exacerbate community relations?
They create distrust and resentment towards police among minority communities.
What evidence supports claims of police racism and discrimination?
Official statistics and independent reports (e.g., Macpherson Report) show disparities in treatment.
How do CPS decisions reflect institutional racism according to some studies?
CPS is more likely to dismiss weaker police cases against minorities due to underlying stereotypes.
What role do probation officers’ reports play in ethnic disparities?
Biased probation reports can lead to harsher sentencing for minority ethnic groups.
What factor contributes to higher imprisonment rates among ethnic minorities?
Institutional racism leading to harsher treatment at various criminal justice stages.
What did Phillips and Bowling suggest about minority ethnic communities’ view of policing?
They perceive policing as oppressive, racist, and discriminatory.
What broader context is necessary to understand ethnicity and crime statistics?
Socio-economic inequalities, cultural stereotyping, and institutional racism.
Why might victim surveys underrepresent certain types of crime?
They only include personal crimes, missing corporate or white-collar crimes.
What do victim surveys reveal about inter-ethnic crime rates?
Most crime is intra-ethnic, within rather than between ethnic groups.
How might ethnic minority crime statistics serve ideological purposes?
They reinforce stereotypes and justify discriminatory policies and practices.
Why are ethnic minorities less trusting of magistrates’ courts?
Due to perceived racial bias and unfair treatment in the justice system.
How do sentencing disparities illustrate systemic racism?
Minority ethnic offenders consistently receive longer sentences even when controlling for similar crimes and histories.
What do differences in stop and search rates indicate?
Possible racial profiling and systemic biases in policing practices.
How do criminal justice statistics reflect broader social inequalities?
They highlight persistent racial and ethnic inequalities across societal institutions, not just crime.
According to Lea and Young (1993), what explains the ethnic differences in offending rates?
Lea and Young argue ethnic differences in offending reflect real differences in levels of offending, resulting from relative deprivation, subculture, and marginalisation.
How does media influence criminality according to Lea and Young?
The media’s emphasis on consumerism increases a sense of relative deprivation by portraying materialistic goals that many minorities cannot legitimately achieve.
What do Lea and Young say about utilitarian crime among ethnic minorities?
Ethnic minorities may form delinquent subcultures producing higher levels of utilitarian crime such as theft or robbery to cope with relative deprivation.
Why do ethnic minorities engage in non-utilitarian crime, according to Lea and Young?
Due to frustration from blocked opportunities and marginalisation, ethnic minorities may resort to non-utilitarian crime, such as violence and rioting.
Why do Lea and Young acknowledge police racism but still see differences in offending as real?
Because over 90% of crimes are reported by the public, reducing police bias; thus, ethnic differences in crime reflect genuine differences in offending.
According to Lea and Young, why can’t racism fully explain crime differences between Asians and blacks?
Because the police would have to be selectively racist—more against blacks than Asians—which seems unlikely.
What evidence suggests real offending differences among ethnic minorities?
Lea and Young cite the link between ethnic differences in offending, relative deprivation, and marginalisation as evidence of real offending differences.
Why are Lea and Young criticized regarding police racism?
They underestimate police racism, ignoring that blacks may experience stereotyping differently from Asians.
How did the events of 9/11 affect stereotypes about Asian criminality?
Post-9/11, stereotypes of Asians (particularly Muslims) as an ‘enemy within’ heightened, explaining the rising criminalisation of this group.
What is the neo-Marxist view on official crime statistics and ethnicity?
Neo-Marxists argue statistics do not reflect real differences but are outcomes of racist stereotyping by the criminal justice system.
How does Gilroy view black criminality?
Gilroy argues black criminality is a myth created by racist stereotypes of African Caribbeans and Asians.
What does Gilroy suggest about criminal acts by ethnic minorities?
He argues they are political acts of resistance against racism and capitalist oppression, rooted in earlier anti-colonial struggles.
What criticisms do Lea and Young have of Gilroy?
They criticize him for romanticizing street crime as revolutionary and point out that most crime is intra-ethnic, not anti-colonial resistance.
Why does Gilroy’s explanation of crime fail regarding Asian offending rates?
It does not explain why the police supposedly target blacks and not Asians, which seems inconsistent if racism were the sole factor.
What neo-Marxist concept does Stuart Hall propose in relation to ethnicity and crime?
Hall proposes the concept of a moral panic, focusing on black ‘muggers’ as scapegoats for capitalist crises in the 1970s.
What crisis context does Hall link to the moral panic around mugging?
High inflation, unemployment, widespread unrest, and the decline of capitalism’s legitimacy in the 1970s.
How does Hall view the role of the capitalist state during crises?
He argues the state uses moral panics and scapegoating black youths to divert attention from capitalism’s failures.
Why does Hall describe mugging as a specifically ‘black’ crime?
Mugging was initially not associated with black youth but became racialized by media and state to reinforce societal fears.
How do Downes and Rock criticize Hall’s theory?
They argue Hall is inconsistent, claiming black street crime was rising due to unemployment, yet simultaneously suggesting crime was exaggerated by media.
What does Hall fail to clarify about capitalism and crime, according to critics?
Hall does not explain how capitalism directly led to a moral panic nor provides clear evidence that the public genuinely panicked over crime.
What recent approach examines the local factors affecting ethnic minority crime rates?
FitzGerald et al (2003) examine neighbourhood factors, finding higher crime rates linked to deprivation rather than ethnicity itself.
What did FitzGerald et al (2003) find regarding street crime among young blacks?
Young blacks were more likely involved in street crime in poor, deprived areas but ethnicity alone wasn’t a cause; whites affected by deprivation were similarly involved.
Why were young blacks more likely found in deprived areas according to FitzGerald et al?
Racial discrimination in housing and employment restricted their residential options, concentrating them in deprived areas.
What concept do Sharp and Budd (2005) introduce regarding arrests and ethnicity?
They suggest some ethnic groups are likelier to be arrested because they commit more visible crimes, making them more detectable.
Why might black offenders be more likely to get caught according to Sharp and Budd (2005)?
Black offenders tend to commit more visible crimes, are known to authorities, and associate with known criminals, raising detection and arrest rates.
How is victimisation often racially motivated according to statistics?
The police recorded 54,000 racist incidents in England and Wales (2014), mostly damage to property and verbal harassment.
How many racially or religiously aggravated offences were prosecuted in 2014?
Approximately 8,600 people were prosecuted or cautioned for racially or religiously aggravated offences.
According to the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW), how many racially motivated incidents occurred in 2014?
Around 89,000 racially motivated incidents occurred according to the CSEW.
Who faces the highest risk of victimisation by ethnicity?
Mixed ethnic backgrounds (28%) have the highest risk, followed by blacks (18%), Asians (16%), and whites (15%).
What additional factors increase the risk of victimisation for ethnic minorities?
Factors such as being young, male, unemployed, and living in deprived areas increase victimisation risk.
How are the police viewed by ethnic minority communities regarding victimisation?
Minority communities view police protection as inadequate and sometimes victimizing, such as through racist harassment and wrongful criminalisation.
What does the Macpherson Report (1999) exemplify about institutional racism?
It exemplifies institutional racism through the police mishandling of Stephen Lawrence’s murder investigation.
How does the Macpherson Inquiry define institutional racism?
As the collective failure of an organisation to provide appropriate service due to discrimination, prejudice, and racist attitudes within the institution.
Why might official statistics overrepresent ethnic minorities in crime?
Ethnic minorities are more likely stopped, searched, arrested, charged, and imprisoned, thus overrepresented in crime statistics.
According to self-report studies, how likely are black individuals to offend compared to whites?
Self-report studies generally show black and white offending rates are very similar.
How do victim surveys depict ethnic patterns of offending?
Victim surveys show most crimes are intra-ethnic, with white victims usually reporting white offenders, suggesting a similar level of offending across ethnic groups.
What psychological impact does racially motivated crime often have?
Racially motivated crime often results in long-term psychological impacts, extending beyond immediate physical injuries or property damage.
How does left realism interpret ethnic differences in crime rates?
Left realism views ethnic differences as genuine results of racism, economic exclusion, and marginalisation.
What do neo-Marxists argue about ethnic minorities and crime?
Neo-Marxists argue ethnic minorities’ criminalisation results from stereotypes created by the capitalist system rather than real differences in offending.
Why are minority ethnic groups simultaneously over-policed and under-protected?
Police disproportionately target ethnic minorities for suspicion while failing to adequately protect them from genuine crimes and victimisation.
How do racist incidents differ from racially aggravated offences legally?
Racist incidents are perceived by anyone as racist, while racially aggravated offences involve motivation proven in court to be based on racial hostility.
Why might crimes against ethnic minorities be underreported?
Victims may mistrust police, fear reprisal, or lack confidence in police willingness or ability to act.
What long-term issue arises from repeated minor racially motivated incidents?
These incidents often escalate into significant psychological trauma and sustained emotional distress.
What role does racism play in crime according to neo-Marxist perspectives?
Racism serves capitalist interests by dividing the working class, creating scapegoats, and distracting attention from wider capitalist issues.
Why does ethnicity alone not explain higher crime rates according to recent approaches?
Ethnicity intersects with factors like class, neighbourhood deprivation, and visibility of crimes, rather than being a standalone explanation.
What historical anti-colonial context does Gilroy associate with black criminality?
He associates it with resistance traditions from former colonies opposing British imperialism.
How does Hall argue that moral panic aids capitalist control?
By distracting public attention away from real capitalist failures towards supposed criminal threats from ethnic minorities.
