Gender, Crime and Justice Flashcards
What does Heidensohn say controls women in public spaces?
The threat or fear of male violence, causing women to limit public activity.
How does sensationalist media portray women in crime according to Heidensohn?
Media distorts images of rape victims as strangers waiting outdoors, reinforcing fear.
What example does Lees (1993) give of controlling women’s public behaviour?
In school, boys maintain control through sexualised verbal abuse, e.g., labelling girls as ‘slags’.
How are women controlled at work according to Heidensohn?
Women’s behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors through sexual harassment and limiting promotions, thus keeping them ‘in their place’.
What is the ‘glass ceiling’ and how does it affect women’s criminal opportunities?
An invisible barrier preventing women from reaching senior positions, limiting opportunities for white-collar crime.
Why do patriarchal constraints reduce women’s motivations to offend?
Due to gender inequalities, women have fewer opportunities to engage in crime like fraud or embezzlement for financial gain.
What research method did Pat Carlen (1988) use?
Unstructured tape-recorded interviews with 39 working-class women convicted of crimes.
What two types of rewards or ‘deals’ does Carlen say women are offered to conform?
The class deal (material rewards) and the gender deal (patriarchal ideology offering emotional rewards).
Why did Carlen’s subjects commit crime, despite these deals?
When promised rewards were unavailable, crime became the only viable route to achieve a decent standard of living.
According to Carlen, what happened when women failed the class deal?
Poverty, unemployment, or inability to secure legitimate means led to criminal activity as an alternative.
According to Carlen, how did failing the gender deal lead women into crime?
Abuse by fathers, domestic violence from partners, or care/foster system failures pushed women away from family life.
What overall conclusion did Carlen’s subjects reach about crime?
Crime was their only available route to a decent standard of living, as they felt they had ‘nothing to lose’.
How do critics evaluate Heidensohn and Carlen’s feminist-control approaches?
Positively for showing how patriarchal controls prevent crime, but negatively for suggesting women’s behaviour is overly determined by external forces.
Why is Carlen’s sample criticised?
It was small and predominantly working-class, limiting generalisability to broader populations.
What does the liberation thesis by Adler (1975) argue?
Women’s liberation from patriarchy will lead to increased female crime rates, making them similar to men’s.
How does Adler describe the changes in female crime?
Increasing participation in traditionally ‘male’ crimes such as violence, armed robbery, and embezzlement.
What did Denscombe’s (2001) study find about young women’s behaviour?
Young women are adopting ‘male’ behaviours, such as risk-taking and aggressive stances, to appear ‘hard’ and in control.
Why do some critics reject Adler’s liberation thesis based on historical evidence?
Female crime began increasing before the women’s liberation movement of the 1960s.
What does Chesney-Lind find about women who commit crime?
Typically they are working-class, and their crimes often relate to their connection with drugs rather than liberation.
Why is there criticism regarding illegitimate opportunities for women despite liberation?
Female gang members in the USA were still constrained to typically feminine roles, limiting their involvement in deviance.
Which statistic supports the liberation thesis regarding female arrests?
Between the 1950s and 1990s, the female share of offences rose from 1 in 7 to 1 in 6.
How does the criminalisation of females differ internationally according to Steffensmeier and Schwartz?
Female arrests for violent crime grew from one-fifth to one-third between 1980-2003, despite victim surveys showing no increase in female offending.
Why is there an apparent increase in female violent crimes according to Steffensmeier and Schwartz?
Due to net widening—arresting females for less serious forms of violence not previously prosecuted.
What do Sharpe and Gelsthorpe (2009) identify as influencing female crime statistics in the UK?
Net-widening policies increasing arrests for low-level physical altercations, such as playground fights.
Why has female deviance, according to Jock Young (2011), been relabelled?
It was once seen as a ‘welfare’ issue but is now criminalised.
Why is the moral panic about increased female violent crime questioned?
Participation in violent crime isn’t increasing; rather, the concern reflects anxiety about changing gender roles.
What is Burman and Batchelor’s (2009) example of media’s exaggeration of young women’s deviance?
Media depictions of young women as ‘drunk and disorderly’ or involved in girl gangs amplify moral panic.
How does the criminal justice system show bias against females according to Sharpe (2009)?
Females are prosecuted for minor behaviours due to a gendered stereotype of appropriate behaviour.
What percentage of female homicide victims are killed by a partner or ex-partner?
About 60%, compared to 2% of male victims.
Why do victim surveys underestimate the frequency of victimisation?
Surveys fail to capture the repeated nature of domestic violence.
What significant impact does Ansara and Hindin (2011) say women experience from domestic violence?
Women experience more severe violence and psychological impacts from domestic abuse.
What do feminists argue about why crime has been neglected in research?
Malestream criminology traditionally focuses on male crime, neglecting female experiences as offenders and victims.
What point does Cain (1989) raise about traditional criminology?
Traditional criminology focuses primarily on male experiences, overlooking the significant role of gender.
How does James Messerschmidt (1993) describe masculinity?
Masculinity is a social construct or accomplishment men continuously work at, potentially leading to crime if legitimate means are unavailable.
What is hegemonic masculinity according to Messerschmidt?
A dominant, prestigious masculinity characterized by paid labour, subordination of women, and heterosexuality.
How do subordinated masculinities differ from hegemonic masculinity?
They include homosexual men, minority ethnic groups, or lower-class men who have limited resources to achieve hegemonic status.
What crime do white middle-class youths commit to assert masculinity?
They engage in minor deviance (pranks, drinking), using privilege to avoid severe consequences.
What characterizes white working-class youths’ crimes according to Messerschmidt?
They engage in oppositional behaviours, such as fighting or defying authority, to assert masculinity due to limited educational success.
How do black lower working-class youths assert masculinity, according to Messerschmidt?
They participate in gang membership and violent crime to establish a reputation when legitimate opportunities are scarce.
What is a criticism of Messerschmidt’s masculinity theory regarding description vs explanation?
His concept of masculinity merely describes types of offenders without explaining why they commit crimes.
How does Messerschmidt overwork the concept of masculinity?
He applies masculinity to virtually all male crimes, reducing explanatory power.
What criticism does Messerschmidt face regarding men and crime?
He fails to explain why not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity.
What evidence from the Islington Crime Survey supports the claim that fear of crime affects women’s public activities?
The survey found that 54% of women avoided going out after dark due to fear of crime, compared to only 14% of men.
According to the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW, 2012), what gender differences exist in experiences of victimisation?
Fewer women (2%) than men (4%) are victims of violence, yet women are more likely to experience intimate violence (domestic abuse, sexual assault, stalking) than men (31% vs 18%).
According to Sparks et al. (1977), how do victim surveys fail to represent female experiences accurately?
Female victims of violence may be reluctant to be interviewed, causing surveys to underestimate female victimisation.
What did Walby and Allen (2004) find about domestic abuse that is often overlooked in surveys?
Women are more likely to be victims of multiple incidents of domestic violence, which surveys frequently do not account for, understating its frequency.
How does Maureen Cain (1989) illustrate the gender bias in criminological research?
Cain argues that criminology has historically focused exclusively on male crime, assuming it universally explains all crime, neglecting female criminality entirely.
According to Heidensohn, how does women’s appearance become controlled in public spaces?
Women are judged by dress, make-up, behaviour, and ways of speaking, fearing being seen as sexually ‘loose’ or inappropriate, controlling their public presence.
According to Carlen’s interviews, how many women had always lived in poverty, and how did this influence their turn to crime?
Thirty-two of the thirty-nine women had always lived in poverty, and many viewed crime as the only viable route out of poverty after legitimate opportunities failed.
What evidence supports Adler’s claim of changing patterns in female crime participation?
Adler cites studies indicating a rise in female involvement in traditionally ‘male’ offences such as embezzlement, armed robbery, and participation in girl gangs.
What is the gender difference in criminal convictions in England and Wales according to official statistics?
Four out of five convicted offenders are male.
By the age of 40, what percentage of females versus males have a criminal conviction according to official statistics?
By age 40, 9% of females have a criminal conviction, against 32% of males.
According to official statistics, what type of offence are females more likely to be convicted for?
Property offences (except burglary).
According to official statistics, what types of crime are males more likely to commit compared to females?
Males are four times more likely to commit violent or sexual offences and eight times more likely to commit homicide.
According to official statistics, how much more likely are men to be repeat offenders?
Men are about 15 times more likely to be repeat offenders.
What do self-report studies suggest about the gender gap in offending compared to official statistics?
Self-report studies show females commit more offences than official statistics indicate.
What did Graham and Bowling’s (1995) self-report study find about the gender gap in offending?
Graham and Bowling found males were more likely to offend, but the difference was smaller than official statistics suggest (2.33 times more likely).
What did Flood-Page et al (2000) find regarding cautioning or prosecution of males versus females for admitted offences?
Only 1 in 11 female self-reported offenders were prosecuted or cautioned, compared with 1 in 7 males.
What is the chivalry thesis?
The chivalry thesis argues that most criminal justice agents (police, judges, magistrates) are men, socialised to be lenient towards women.
How does Pollak (1950) describe men’s attitude toward women regarding crime?
Pollak argues men have a protective attitude towards women, dislike arresting, prosecuting, or finding them guilty.
According to the chivalry thesis, how does the criminal justice system treat female offenders?
It is more lenient with female offenders, reducing official female crime rates.
Give an example of evidence supporting the chivalry thesis using self-report studies.
Graham and Bowling found a smaller gender gap in offending in self-reports than official records.
According to Flood-Page et al, what proportion of female offenders were prosecuted or cautioned?
Only one in eleven female offenders.
What did Farrington and Morris’s (1983) study find regarding sentencing of men and women for theft?
They found that women were not sentenced more leniently for comparable offences.
What did Box’s (1981) review find regarding UK and US court records on sentencing for serious offences?
Women were not treated more favourably than men.
According to Buckle and Farrington’s (1984) observational study, which gender was more likely to shoplift?
They observed that men were more likely to shoplift, although official statistics suggest women shoplift more.
How might self-report studies contradict the chivalry thesis regarding male offending?
Young men are more likely than females to report binge drinking, drug use, or disorderly conduct, suggesting the gender gap increases with the seriousness of offences.
How might crimes against women undermine the chivalry thesis?
Many male crimes against women are under-reported, indicating that justice may not be as lenient toward women victims.
What proportion of female victims of serious sexual assault reported it to police, according to Yearnshire (1997)?
Only 8% of female victims.
Why are crimes of the powerful underrepresented in self-report and victim surveys?
These crimes are less likely committed by women and more by men in powerful positions.
What alternative explanation might explain leniency towards women other than chivalry?
Women’s offences tend to be less serious, making them more likely to receive lenient treatment.
According to Heidensohn (1996), how are courts biased against women in sentencing for deviating from gender norms?
Courts treat females more harshly when they deviate from traditional gender norms, such as motherhood and sexuality.
What “double standards” did Heidensohn find in sentencing for sexual activity?
Courts punish girls but not boys for premature or promiscuous sexual activity, labelling girls as ‘wayward’.
According to Sharpe (2009), how were seven out of eleven girls referred to youth worker support judged?
They were judged due to their sexual activity, none out of 44 boys faced this treatment.
According to Stewart (2006), what factor influences magistrates’ perceptions of female defendants?
Whether they conform to stereotypical gender roles.
According to Carlen (1997), how does women’s sentencing relate to gender roles?
Women’s sentencing often reflects how well they conform to their roles as mothers, daughters, and wives.
What did Carlen find about Scottish judges and women in custody cases?
Judges were more likely to jail women whose children were in care, seeing them as poor mothers.
According to feminists, what do double standards in the criminal justice system reveal?
The criminal justice system is patriarchal, showing bias against women.
What does Carol Smart (1989) report about Judge Wild’s statement in a rape case?
The judge stated, “Women who say no do not always mean no,” reflecting victim-blaming attitudes.
How does Walklate (1998) illustrate victim-blaming attitudes in rape trials?
Walklate notes that in rape cases, it is often the victim on trial rather than the defendant.
What does Adler (1987) say about single parents and respectability in court?
Single parents find it difficult to be seen as respectable, making their testimony less credible.
How might the concept of patriarchy explain bias in favour of women (chivalry)?
Men’s protective attitudes toward women can lead to leniency in courts due to paternalistic bias.
How might patriarchy explain bias against women in courts?
Patriarchy can lead to harsher judgments against women who deviate from traditional gender norms.
What argument suggests that the criminal justice system may be less lenient toward women than claimed by the chivalry thesis?
When women commit serious or gender-deviant crimes, they face harsher punishment than men.
Why might men’s crimes against women be underreported or prosecuted less seriously?
Police and courts may fail to act appropriately on reports, reflecting institutional biases.
What implication does the underreporting of crimes against women have for gender and crime statistics?
It underestimates the seriousness and extent of male violence and inflates the supposed leniency toward women offenders.
What do official statistics reveal about gender differences in violent crimes?
Men significantly dominate violent crime, being four times more likely to commit violent offences.
Why might men’s offending be underestimated in official statistics?
Crimes of the powerful, often committed by men, are underrepresented.
how might employment bias against convicted women be explained?
Women face more employment barriers after conviction due to societal stigma and gender norms.
Why are victim surveys important in understanding gendered crime patterns?
They highlight the underreporting of crimes against women and thus expose biases in official statistics.
How might gender stereotypes influence police perceptions and actions?
Gender stereotypes might cause police to dismiss women’s crimes as trivial or interpret men’s crimes as more severe.
Why is it argued that official statistics might not accurately reflect true gender differences in crime?
Official statistics may reflect biases in reporting, prosecution, and sentencing rather than true gender differences in criminality.
How does gendered socialisation affects crime?
Gender socialisation leads to different types and levels of crime for men and women, shaping what is considered acceptable or deviant behaviour.
According to official statistics, which gender is most likely to shoplift, and how does this compare to Buckle and Farrington’s (1984) observational findings?
Official statistics suggest females are more likely to shoplift, but Buckle and Farrington’s observational study found that men were actually more likely to shoplift.
How does evidence against the chivalry thesis suggest female offenders are likely to be treated by the criminal justice system in comparison to male offenders committing serious offences?
It suggests women committing serious offences are likely to be treated similarly or even more harshly than men, contradicting the chivalry thesis.
What evidence does Yearnshire (1997) provide on the under-reporting of crimes against women in the evidence against the chivalry thesis section?
Yearnshire found that only 8% of serious sexual assaults against women were reported to the police, highlighting significant under-reporting.
Why might self-report studies give a different picture of male and female offending compared to official statistics?
Self-report studies might reveal a smaller gender gap because they include less serious, unreported offences typically excluded from official data.
What two types of crimes does the evidence against the chivalry thesis say are particularly under-reported and therefore not accurately reflected in official statistics?
Crimes of the powerful and sexual crimes against women are particularly under-reported.
Why are women offenders said to face more stigma in employment after conviction according to bias against women?
Women face greater stigma due to gendered expectations and societal perceptions about female criminality being particularly deviant.
What might the leniency toward women in the criminal justice system, as proposed by the chivalry thesis, indicate according to feminist perspectives?
Feminists argue such leniency reflects patriarchal attitudes, seeing women as less accountable, rather than genuine fairness.
According to gender patterns in crime, how does gender socialisation influence the types of crime males commit?
Male socialisation promotes aggression and risk-taking, leading to higher involvement in violent and serious offences.
What argument counters the chivalry thesis regarding the treatment of women accused of sexual offences as explained in the bias against women section?
Courts apply harsher double standards to women accused of sexual offences, treating their behaviour as morally deviant compared to men.
According to bias against women, how does the criminal justice system typically view women who are mothers and have offended?
Mothers who offend are often judged harshly if seen as failing their maternal roles, facing stricter sentences or harsher treatment in courts.
