global development Flashcards
aid 20m
traps of aid
P-aid keeps underdeveloped
E-Collier 4 trap
A-Riddell agrees, kleptocracy
C- Sachs, bottom billion would be worse without it, 11million in Africa now go to school
E- aid is tied
tied aid
P-tied aid controlled by west to benefit them
E- Sierra Leone, privatisation of water
A- Hayter, hates aid, 60% aid = tied
C- tied aid avoids corruption, pays 80% world vaccinations
E-causes debt to developed world
neo liberals
P-vicious cycle of debt and dependency
E-owe $5trillion, cycle of dependency
A-Moyo, Africa still poor 1 in 7 don’t reach five
C- Rostow, aid essential for take off
E- limits countries economic independence, never reach age of high mass consumption, solution= trade not aid
modernisation on TNCs
-Rostow, play major role in take off
-TNC’s add technology, education and income which kickstarts economy
dependency on TNCs
-TNCs = exploitive
–Ellwood, form of ‘neo colonialism’
-TNC’s bully to open up economies for private investment
-Bakan, institutional psychopaths
-programmed to exploit and dehumanise people forprofit
e.g
nestle baby milk scandal
bhopal disaster
rana plaza collapse
Klein- low wage gehttos (43mil workers)
Neo liberals on TNCs
-TNC’s benefit society as create jobs for local people
-act local think global
-provide developing country with export revenue and invest in education and skills, placing them on the trading map
nestle baby milk scandal
-baby formula that had effects of health problems
-to eradicate, they sold to developing world
*neglected sanitation (mix with dirty water)
*4x more likely to die from pneumonia
*inadequate nutrition
bhopal disaster
-gas leak, chances to stop were avoided
*caused death and deformations
rana plaza collapse
-sweatshop (crowded workplace with poor, unsafe or illegal conditions)
*collapsed killing 1134, was known to be unsafe but the factory was gaining profit so it was disregardedA32
Calderisi (aid)
Africa has failed to use western aid efficiently and became in debt because…
1- poor economic management (over taxation led to Africa losing half it’s shares with the worlds agricultural markets. As well as this, debt management as other countries such as Indonesia has managed debt carefully and cannot understand why Africa receives special treatment)
2-lack of African unity (tribal or border conflicts halts ability to trade and reduces potential export income that could’ve been reinvested. Hard to attract investments to countries unwilling to share common interests such as transport)
3-Corruption (petty day to day corruption hurts poor the most as they have to pay higher % of income in bribes e.g have to hand over 2 weeks wages to obtain death certificate for burying relative)
4-lack of good governance (African leaders tend to be epitome of corruption, no other countries experienced such prolonged dictatorships. government not people that benefit from aid)
EPZ
export processing zones
-produce goods to export to west
-5000 in the world, employ over 43 million workers
-located on boarders for easy exportation
-unskilled labour due to technology and globalisation
Klein, to lure TNCs to EPZs, governments offer tax breaks, tax health and saftey regulations, and low minimum wage. Integration with local culture is bare minimum
-entire developing countries are being turned into industrial slums and low wage ghettos
collier traps
bottom billion = poorest in the world
1- conflict trap (countries receiving foreign aid are engaged in expensive civil wars so money won’t be used for development)
2-bad governance trap (kelptocracy, corrupt elite, control and/or steal aid for personal benefit)
3-land locked with bad neighbours trap (if land locked with poor transport links e.g Ugandas access to sea is dependent on Kenya’s infrastructure making transportation and trade links difficult)
4- natural resource trap (resources such as oil and diamonds are uncovered it often leads to civil war and unrest as groups compete for control of commodities)
Riddell, agrees with corruption trap.
-donor countries such as UK have to shoulder blame for failed aid as often give to countries that didn’t really need it (less than half official aid channelled to bottom billion) and too many donors leads to competeion and lack of coordination
NGOs
non government organisations
-charities such as Oxfam, Red cross etc, aim to raise donations from general public by raising awareness
-fundraising matched by department for international development
-target poorest
GNI
gross national income
-total value of goods and services produced by a country in a particular year
-given a per capita (person) figure
shows dramatic scale of inequality e.g UK= 40k, Ethiopia 180 (per capita)
-economic wellbeing of a society is measured by this
Debt crisis
-aid undermined through debt the developing world owe ($5 trillion)
-main reason for debt is due to interest rates (1970s, Jamaica borrowed $19million, paid back over $20billion and still owe more due to high interest rate)
- developing countries overdependent on selling 2 or 3 commodities, so when the price of these fall they need to borrow money to makeup the difference
-debt = counterproductive in regards to aid
- more money leaving dw in form of debt repayment than aid flowing in
-ends in rich countries giving aid in order to take back, nearly 1/4 African aid each year is immediately given back in form of debt repayments
Rostow
-anti communist manifesto- communism = disease that prevents development
-development = evolutionary in which countries progress up a ladder
stage 1- traditional stage (bottom, economy dominated by farming, little wealth, cultural barriers such as religion, strong links to extended family)
stage 2- preconditions for take off (western practises introduced, science and technology, modernise agriculture, manufacturing industry, communication and transport, investment from western countries act as fuel)
stage 3- take off (rapid economic growth, modern practises become norm, profits reinvested, emergence of new entrepreneurial class who are individualistic and risk takers, export goods, wealth trickles down)
stage 4- drive to maturity (continued economic growth and reinvestment, introduction of mass education (meritocratic), media, tv, medical technology, higher standard of living due to paid work from education, stabilised position)
stage 5- age of high mass consumption (ultimate stage, western level growth and development, urban rather than rural, high life expectancy, poverty = eradicated)
Pakko and Pollard, burgernomics
measure development of society
-Mcdonalds operates over 120 countries around the world and big mac is valued consumer, price however varies from country to country, wages differ too
-how many minutes a worker must work in order to buy a big mac, the shorter the period the more developed the country. USA and Uk around 11 minutes vs Phillipines 112 minutes
Gross national happiness
-measuring development
-Bhutan
-spiritual and emotional wellbeing takes priority over wealth and income
-holistic approach
-improve environment to achieve spiritual satisfaction
defining development
peet and hartwick-development means ‘making a better life for everyone’
-developed/undeveloped
-first world= developed industrial capitaliste.g usa
-second world= communist e.g china
-third world= undeveloped e.g africa
-more economically developed countries (MEDC)= wealthy industrial capitalist
-newly industrialised countries (NIC)= asian tigers, china, singapore
-less economically developed countries (LEDC)= positive economic growth but still dependent on agriculture e.g India
-least economically developed countries (LLEDC)= Bangledesh, Ethiopia
modernisation theory
Hunntington, modernisation = evolutionary process
McKay, made a ‘beguiling promise’ to poorer nations, if they were willing to follow same growth pattern then they will reach economic growth and development
Rostow- ladder
Following this Parsons argues development can only happen if other cultural barriers are overcome:
-religious values stress patriarchy
-ascription
-fatalism
-collectivism
= enemy of progression, instead should adopt
-meritocracy
-universalism
-individualism
neo-modernisation
Huntington
culture as primary variable for development
western culture = exceptional
-need to develop modern imagination in both thinking and practises
-Landes, Europeans are more rational, productive, literate, ordered and subscribe to a more advanced value system organised around democracy and free speech.
landes argues these should be aopted if DW wants to escape poverty
Sachs, bottom billion too malnourished to lift a foot to reach first motor and lack capital
failed economies= hot bed for terrorism, Huntington, failed societies = threat to usa and encourages nation building (forcing american values such as free trade and democracy)
AO3
:(sachs and huntington = selfish
:(ethnocentric
:(ignores crisis of modernism
:)big influence on global affairs e.g aid distributions
GNP for measuring development ‘economic wellbeing’
gross national product
-total economic value of goods and services available for consumption in marketplace of that year.
-USA 55,200 VS DEMRC 410
AO3
-sociologists view as unsatisfactory:
-questions of reliability
e.g Black- neglects invisible/illegal economies of subsistence e.g prostitution, drug dealing
-focuses on materialism and consumerism rather than personal happiness and progression
-Pickett and Wilson, developed in West which is accompanied by social problems and unhappiness
NGOs on measuring development
‘social wellbeing’
such as Oxfam
-should focus on social indicators of development , right to experience ‘social wellbeing’ e.g right for children to survive into adulthood due to access to safe water
-example= HDI human development index, aimed to measure social wellbeing such as years in schooling, life expectancy etc
-usa 99% literate vs sierra leone 43%
AO3
- doesn’t measure all sw aspects e.g peace and low crime rates
-not strong enough alone
defining development, environmentalist perspective
sustainable development
-process to economic and social wellbeing should be eco friendly to reduce jeopardy of future generations
-Black, aims to promote living standards as well as safeguards environment from growing pressures of population growth e.g environment degradation
aims to tackle deforestation, pollution, global warming
development as global wellbeing and millennium development goals
-consider a countries role in the world
-e.g environmental sustainability, promotion of world peace
-economic, social and sustainable brought together
Black- aims to improve standards and safeguard environment, ensuring future generations a sustainable environment rather than a terminal decline
millennium development goals
1- eradicate extreme poverty or hunger
2- achieve universal primary education
3- gender equality and empower women
4-reduce child mortality
5- improve maternal health
6- combat HIV/AIDS, malria etc
7-environmental sustainability
8-global partnerships
AO3
Collier, kleptocracy
criteria should include promotion of basic human rights (AO3 imperialism)
-ethnocentric
-global life expectancy improved
neo-liberals
-adoption of free market
-shaped policies of imf
dependency theory
Frank
-west deliberately keep developed world underdeveloped
-world capitalist system
-interlocking chain
-metropolis vs satellite
-exploitation
-slavery and coloialism
-dependency established under slavery
-triangular slave trade
neo-colonialism
-if independence achieved it’s through this
-wt dominated by west
-tnc
-aid
AO3
:( dependency hard to operationalise
:(some metropolisis satellite relationships can be good e.g usa and canada (health of usa economy depends on positive relations with countries)2
globalisation
kennedy- increased interconnectedness and interdependency of world’s nations
causes of globalisation
cohen and kenndey
‘set of mutually reinforcing transformations’ of the world
e.g
1-advances in mass communications (transforms concept of space and time)
2-nature of economic and financial markets has changed, no longer localised , 3 sisters of trade, TNC division of labour
3- culture = globalised e.g media ,news, fashion, food developed and manufactured fir global consumption Steven (despite differences in social context many listen to same music)
4- reflexive modernisation
-beck and giddens- risk evolved e.g people trafficking, climate change etc
cultural globalisation
rapid movement of ideas, values, attitudes etc
monoculture which is reinforced by media and influences peoples choices
cultural globalisation of food = dominated by American fast food e.g
35,000 mcdonalds in 118 countries which has global effect on diet and eating habits
economic globalisation
Friedman
rapid intensification of international trade resulting in dissolving economies
trade dominated by 3 sisters
neolibs see it as having economic and social benefits
neomarxists, Frobel,
tnc and banks more economically powerful than individual countries and therefore construct international division of labour whereby systematically exploit developing world
effects on domestic economies
-if western demand for product that dw is highly dependent on selling it puts them in harsh position
global risks
(globalisation)
spread of international crime e.g. internet fraud and drug trafficking, $500 billion a year
drug trafficking- linked to poverty, international trading system means poorer countries such as Afghanistan cannot survive on income provided by legitimate cash drops and turn to this
white collar crime- 24 hr global financial markets, can move large sums of money anywhere within seconds
Violence- international drug gangs compete for global dominance, terrorism is media fuelled
hyper globalism (globalisation)
globalisation having consequences on how people operate across world
hyper globalism-
globalisation eventually produce tolerant and responsible world citizens
-sen= hope for all humanity that will liberate from poverty
Friedman- golden straitjacket that all countries need to fit into in order to develop e.g privitisation
one size fits all (not always pretty or gentle but only model on the rack)
good smaritans (imf, wto,wb)
Pessimistic globalism
-Chang and seabrook
-negative phenomenon
-western imperialism
-chang- neolibs paint false picture by ensuring explotation
-chang, unholy alliance (imf, wto,wb) force countries down free trade e.g lending money if adoption of free trade happens ‘bad samaritans’
pessimistic globalism
(globalisation)
Pessimistic globalism
-Chang and seabrook
-negative phenomenon
-western imperialism
-monoculture
-chang- neolibs paint false picture by ensuring exploitation benefitting all
-chang, unholy alliance (imf, wto,wb) force countries down free trade e.g lending money if adoption of free trade happens ‘bad samaritans’
-global pillage not global village
Seabrook
-globalisation makes all other cultures inferior
-integration of monoculture = declaration of cultural war
-concentration of worlds media, controlled by west e.g usa disney, microsoft etc. thereofre impose monotropolistic views onto tv
mcworld
Barber and Schulz, McWorld
coca-colonisation
reshapes minds
seabrook resposnes
1-fatalistic response
2-resistence, e.g french culture tax
3-vehement, violence
world systems theory
(globalisation)
Wallerstein
-marxist based
-globalisation = crucial part of how capitalism is organised
structural relationship between 3 capitalist zones
1- core (developed e.g usa)
west, monotropic world trade, industrialist
2- semi-periphery (some wealth but also poor e.g brazil) resemble core countries but rely on core countries, elements of both
3- periphery (poor e.g africa)
bottom of hierarchy, exploited by core countries
-you can move up or down the hierarchy’s but there’s no evidence to show for it yet
-global version of relation ship between bourgeoisie and proletariat that Marxists see as major characteristic of capitalism
-mws = constantly evolving
-commodification (price to everything)
-deskilling (break down of complex skills into simple repeptitve skills)
-mechanisation (robot computerised technology)
AO3
:( economic reductionism, overlooks social, cultural and political factors
:(abstract and vauge
international agencies- world trade organisation
international agencies-exercises influence on uk international and domestic policies e.g un,eu
united nations= formed 1945, to increase political and economic cooperation among it’s members countries
-aims to keep peace between the nations particular focus on dw
eu= largest aid donors
-distributed to prevent corruption. However, the eu state the developing countries have a strong say in how the aid is spent as do NGOs
WTO= governs global trade with aim of reducing trade barriers and competition between nations
-monitors agreements
-90%world
-bias to west and pressures developing world to open economies
-protesters argue it’s rogged to favour the west and the wto is a rich mans club dominated by neo-libs philosophy of developed industrial nations
Ellwood= highly critical of wto
-undermines workers rights and environmental protection by encouraging ‘race to the bottom’ between governments of developing worlds
-too much political power
Legrain= defends wto
-critics exaggerated power
-critics have ignored the fact that tncs have to abide to government laws
urbanisation
increase of proportion of people living in towns/cities
-until 1950s most populated cities were developed world
-now most populated are
- mexico city 185mill
by 2030, africa will be an urban city/continent
-In contrast, urban growth in developed world is falling as people are deciding to leave cities due to globalisation
-what causes urbanisation in developing world (globalisation, epz increasing jobs, social mobility)
urbanisation caused by rapid population in the developing world
-push and pull
-pollution, cost, crime (push)
-opportunities, jobs, resources (pull)
push-
poverty
natural disasters
war
pull-
jobs
opportunities
escape from constraints e.g religion, marriage
benefits
-access to healthcare, education, employment (etc)
-change in norms (greater gender equality etc)
-political changes- democracy
-increased communication
limitations
-diseases of modernity e.g mental health, substance abuse
-exploitation of labour due to mass population
-environmental issues e.g pollution, overpopulation
modernisation on urbanisation
-positive as european went through urbanisation so dw should follow
-cities promote economic growth by giving industrialist- capitalist access to massive concentration pool of labour for their factories (wages trickle down)
-Cross, cities are catalyst of modernisation due to loosen ties to traditional institutions and value systems by reducing dependency on community and extended kin
-claims city life leads to development of modernist values that are more suitable to progress and development
-results in entrepreneurial urban population prepared to take risks
AO3
-based on false historical picture, urbanisation of europe was gradual over 200yrs
-looks at western urbanisation through rose tinted glasses (city life has killed concept of community leading to serious social problems e.g crime)
industrialisation
modernisation and dependency
-drive to manufactured goods
-rise in wages and living standards
modernisation and neo libs
-agree with industrialisation
-rostow, dw needs help from west and tnc to industrialise
-neo-libs, need to invest in themselves as an individual state to rapidly industrialise
-e.g green revolution, succeeded as rise of production however causes unemployment and damages environment
dependency
-mexico offers tnc 100% tax exemption for first 10 yrs and then 50% for next 10yrs
-Hoogvelt, is a positive process BUT benefits west
-Frobel, outcome of new international division of labour is most low paid and low skilled workers are concentrated in dw whereas most high paid and high skilled workers are in developed world
-new form of neocolonialism
-Klein = EPZs
tied aid
-‘terms and conditions’ attached to aid
-benefits donor economy
-states a proportion of funds must be spent on goods and manufactured services in the donor country
-marxist argues this fuels capitalism
e.g british supplies aid in the form of helicopters for india with clause that they must buy the manufacturing and technology from the uk (creates vicious cycle)
Sierra leone
-world bank privatised water
-2nd poorest country
types of aid
bilateral aid
-70%
-governments in developed give directly to countries in developing
multilateral aid
-30%
-delivered by agencies including international organisations such as world bank or ngos
ngo
-charities such as oxfam, red cross etc, aim to raise donations from general public by raising awareness
-fundraising matched by department for international development
-targets poorest
why give aid
1 compassion
-HASLAM altruism (selflessness) is biggest reason
-countries also gain credit/status HOWEVER Marren argues aid is shaped by self interest
2 aid as a sweetener
-can be used to gain access to markets and resources to build up relationships
-e.g usa, used aid to guarantee access to scarce resources
3 political power
-uk gives most aid to it’s ex colonies due to feeling it’s an ethical obligation but expects countries to support British interest
4 western value
-spread western values
problems because of the failure of modernisation theory
-assumes all societies will advance in the same way through a fixed set of stages (e.g rostow)
-slow to understand developing societies have unique features that aren’t shared
-e.g Somalia and Ethiopia, lledcs, but are different from one another in terms of climate, agriculture, social structure etc
-assumes cultural ideas can initiate economic growth
-Inglehart and Baker, 61 traditional societies
-found they hold a strong emphasis on religion, gender roles, parental authority
-also opposed to social change, industrialist societies held opposite characteristics
-data shows cultural characteristics can be the promotion of economic insecurity
-culture = less important
neo-libs (development)
Bauer, only way to achieve development is to adopt free market model of capitalism
deliver benefits more effectively than government intervention and this should be kept to minimum
ideas about free market shaped by IMF, and WB which lent money to developing countries on the condition of land reform policies which involved fairer distributions was abandoned and spending on health/education reduced
marxism (development)
global stratification
-capitalist class won battles due to primitive accumulation of capital which originated in it’s early periods, capital was accumulated via slavery and transition to capitalism from feudalism was facilitated by exploitation of developing world
3 stages of euro-american imperialism
1 mercantile imperialism (conquest of americas and much of asia, plundering of vast wealth, declaring war, force nations to accept unequal terms of trade- kickstart primitve accumulation of capital)
2 (large industrial economies competing for global domination, takeover of traditional societies)
3 (not motivated by territorial conquests but control of people believed to be problematic or a threat to the security)
postmodernism (development)
Sachs and Escobar
1development was always unjust and has clearly failed
-produce socio-economic apartheid rather than more equal world
-criticises assumption that developing world is homogeneous and undifferentiated
-development path is shaped by web of power with relations to west
-produces development as paternalism, dw is treated as a child in great need of guidance
e.g Escobar
-development associated with modernisation is ethnocentric
-language of power only interested in achieving conditions that are characteristic of west, dismissive of anything else which is arrogant and disrespectful
-justifies itself by claiming rationality, objectivity and scientific
-in reality treats cultures and people as statistical figures to be moved up and down in the name of progress
-fails to acknowledge they are real people with real situations
2- other post modernists argue modernists rarely seek perspective of those within countries
MCKAY- fail to consult them or take into account their local knowledge therefore western values may have little meaning in other cultures
e.g SAHLINS western aid incorrectly assumes poor means unhappiness- Buhan GNH, poverty leading to unhappiness is a western social construct
3- CARMEN, assumes underdevelopment is the fault of the victim, this is dehumanising and a dangerous delusion as people internalise the myth that they are incapable and they themselves are the problem
-SANKARA, mind becomes colonised by ideas that they should be dependent on the west
-GALEANO train you to be paralysed and sell you the crutches
AO3
-devalues efforts of west, 11 million in school in africa due to western aid
-doesn’t offer alternatives
tnc
business that have outgrown domestic origins and operate across international boarders
characteristics
-seek competitive advantage and maximise profits
-geographical flexibility
-part of workforce scattered across world
-assets distributed world wide
e.g sony, nike, coca cola
tncs from perpectives
modernisation
-like them as essential for preconditions for take off
-bring technology
neolib
-Friedman like them as offer jobs and regular wage
-invest in education
Marxist
-exploitation
-Ellwood, economically powerful tncs are bullying smaller countries into opening up to private investments
-focus on deregulation of banks and global finance which paired with revolution in communication, led to massive movements of money across the globe
-encourages banks to act like gamblers taking unnecessary risks whcih destabilises economies
-collapse of us bankers lehman brothers ‘worst financial crisis in financial history’
-total cost of taxpayers worldwide estimated imf $1.4 trillion
Bakan- institutional psychopaths
dehumanise for profit
-e.g shell in nigeria, exploited natural resources, people had their land seized and been removed at gunpoint
-rana plaza
-baby milk
role of international organisations
-uk belongs to a number of international organisations that have influence over uk international and domestic policies and consequently uks relationship with dw
united nations
-number of agencies working within the developing world that are committed to meeting millennium development goals e.g world health organisation and unicef
eu
-states worlds largest aid donors
-aid is regularly checked to prevent
-developing countries have strong say in how aid used
imf
role of NGOs
number of roles such as promoting sustainable development, human rights, social justice and protesting against environmental degradation
-quiet revolution and civil society
-various types
1 charities such as oxfam, redcross (raise money by public)
2 anti globalisation movement (greenpeace, recognise western favouring and concerned of environmental degradation that result from global purist of profit)
theoretical approaches to trade
modernisation
-rostow, nations ability to trade effectively is essential as allows reinvestment
neolibs
-Reid-Henry, global free trade= desired end of development. 4 key organising principles to ensure societies fit free market vision:
1) pull down barriers to western investment
2) workers in developing world expected to work hard for cheap
3) privatisation of public services
4)social life organised with profit motive
-favour trade, especially as alternative to aid
-western nations are example and they got dominance through trade
-western expertise should be utilised
AO3-ethnocentric
-Reid-henry, free trade is means and end to developmental policies
-offers jobs with regular wage
Dependency
-form of neo colonialism
-exploitative relationship between workers and tncs (low pay etc)
-less legalisation in dw to protect workers
-Ellwood- ‘race to the bottom’
-dw already has a position in world trading system as raw materials and cash crop
dependency on urbanisation
-growing inequality within urban areas
-larger unemployment
-transition of western values is imperialism
-urban underclass,
post development perspective (theories)
society= shaped by web of power relations with west
development characterised by disparities between power of developed vs developing world, developing world treated as a child in need of guidance
Mckay, development startegies often in the hands of western experts who fail to consult locals
Escobar, discourse of development = ethnocentric, western model of development justifies itself by claiming scientific when in reality it treats people like statistical figures
Carmen, by blaming developing world for their underdevelopment it dehumanises them and paints them with dangerous delusions as they internalise the myth
western aid presumes lack of material = unhappiness BUT bhutan gross national happiness
political globalisation
until end of ww2, governments were in charge of citizens security, human rights and economic welfare
however relations or participations in political institutions often shape policies
e.g UN
Giddens- following features of political globalisation = collapse of communication
transformationalist and post modernist theories (globalisation)
tranformationislt critical of marxits as
1 believes flow goes one way
2 underestimates strength of local culture
3 local cultures not swallowed by western or global culture (robertson) ‘glocalisation’ e.g bollywood = culture and globalised features of tv and film
Kassim- global communication and social networking can assist local cultures to rid of repressive political systems, arab spring aided by global social networking
benefits/criticisms of NGOs
benefits:
-independent, more likely to achieve aims
-work directly with people rather than government NO KELPTOCRACY
criticisms:
-sexual abuse problems
-reliant on money collected by public, could lead to manipulation of public
tourism industry
6th largest sector of global economy earnings from international trade
on the rise due to
-growth of communication systems increased curiosity
-cheapness of air travel
-growth of higher education
benefits of tourist industry:
-brings western currency
-provides employment
-stimulates local economy
Urry, Hall and Harrison concerned with negative impacts such as:
-relative deprivation
-insult of culture e.g alcohol, gambling (tourists behave insensitively)
-traditional culture become commercialised e.g tribal dancing which devalues it
-environmental degradation
development and the environment
(environmental degradation)
-growing awareness of environmental degradation
-Kingsbury, no longer a case of if but when and where
1) species extinction, Elwood, habbitat loss = major cause past 500 years = 816 species extincted
2) deforestation, Kingsbury = worlds most significant environmental problem, worlds most major rainforests will be deforested in 30 yrs
3) desertification, over grazing land by poor, 1970 africa = self sufficient in food, 1984 a quarter = kept alive by food aid
4) water pollution, reduces clean drinking water and threatens existence of animals and plants
environmental pressure points
causes of environmental degaration
-population growth (Ehrlich, earths resources cannot sustain current population growth)
-economic necessity (poor developing countries have no other choice but to use and reuse environmental resources, Elwood, the desperately poor do not make good eco citizens e.g poaching animals, plundering forest)
-greed and corruption (desire of local elites and international corporations to accumulate wealth at the expense of others e.g cost cutting and dumping toxic waste, exploitation)
-poverty and debt (in order to pay off debts, developing countries engage in deforestation with strong encouragement from international agencies)
War and conflict
Duffield, war prevents development
new interest in war due to globalisation ‘underdevelopment has become dangerous’
Kaldor: old vs new wars
old = battlefield, socially organised violence, mass production of weapons and alliances
new=
- identify politics, develop grievances based on differences e.g Collier rwandan civil war based on tribal differences
-Globalised financing, rebels finance themselves through hostages, black market, hijacking aid
-Different modes of warfare, new involve guerilla warefare, captured territory, mass murder, ethnic cleaning, rape
-shadow economies, trade in drugs, blood diamonds
-effects of globalised culture, rebel leaders influenced by globalised culture e.g global mass culture such as rolex, cars, raybans
KEY EXAMPLES
- Guerilla warfare: centred on fear and hatred, COLLIER ethnic cleansing (rid of different identities), booby traps, blending in with civilians, suicide bombs, rape
e.g Rwandan genoicde, death toll of up to 1mill, if refuse to kill, were killed
-Rape as a weapon, asserts power, shame (exiled by family) preganacy, spread of disease (Vietnam war)
Collier war and underdevelopment
two thirds worlds poorest countries involved or in civil war
poverty and underdevelopment = war
economy failing = low income= poverty = hopelessness= rebel armies
rebel armies offer them a chance of ££
coup trap, deepens and complicates poverty civil war = development in reverse
experiencing a civil war doubles risk of another conflict, only 50/50 chance of achieving peace in next 10 years if recently experienced civil war
blood diamonds
Sierra leone was ravaged by civil war by revolutionary united front
villages burned, women raped, children killed, hands and feet cut off, others forced to work as slaves in diamond mines
blood diamonds due to those died in process of control to obtain them
changing nature of employment as a result of development
Peet and Hartwick, economic activity has become globalised
there is now a global division of labour as TNCs outsource work that was once only done in western workplace factories e.g epz
-example: india benefitting from jobs, McMicheal, Dehli call centre, indian recruits must take a british crash course whereby watch british soaps asnd learn about yorkshire puddings
formal vs informal
-formal = regular wages that are formally provided
-informal = developing world, crops, livestock, not about a wage but about surviving Fields ‘working hard but working poor’
employment and women
Martell, women are increasingly a resource for global capitalism because millions are now involved in production process
Peet and Hartwick, majority of new global working class 40% worlds workers are female
women continue to earn significantly less than men
90% factory workers in developing world are female
child labour (employment)
although on the decline still effects 1 in 8 children
306 million children working in 2008, 215 million involved in child labour
work to:
overcome family poverty
no schools available
nature of health and illness in developing countries
main cause of death
developed= diseases of affluence
developing=diseases of poverty
examples of major inequalities:
-half a million women die each year from childbirth 99% of these are in the developing world
-30,000 children a day die of preventable diseases
modernisation and health
-need to follow same path as developed
-west once experienced diseases of poverty but after economic growth, standard of living was improved
-therefore these countries will improve but in the meantime should accept aid
dependency and health
neo-colonial reasons why developing societies experience inequalities in health
1- poverty (caused by deliberate underdevelopment) = malnutrition in children
-lack of money to invest in healthcare 1 doctor per 17,000 vs richer countries 1 doctor per 520
2- debt
means lack money to invest in healthcare system (more a country pays to reduce debt, the more the infant mortality rate increases)
3- west poaching healthcare professionals
lead to brain drain (26% nhs doctors = developing world) results in brain drain as SHARPLES takes much needed health workers and migration of health workers works out cheaper for UK than training british
health care systems
developing countries often influenced by developed in their choice of health care system
expensive approach
world population growth
1925= 2 billion on earth
2015= 7.3
2 aspects of rise
1) phenomenally rapid
2)most occurred in developing world (99% in less developed regions of africa)
2050 worlds population will hit 9.2 billion
neo-malthusian modernisation theory
Thomas Malthus- population increases at a faster rate than they can feed themselves
population = geometric rate
food= arithmetic rate
this will lead to limits on food supply and natural checks on population such as famine and malnutrition, possibly even war
EHRLICH- the battle to feed all humanity is over, population explosion that has put too much strain on limited food and energy
-argues this is responsible for issues such as malnutrition, poverty and war
-birth rate must be brought down to death rate or mankind will breed itself into oblivion
mod- yet another obstacle stopping them from adopting western values down to cultural barriers such as patriarchal beliefs denying women contraception, work and education and traditional religions doing the same
health care in cuba
-worldwide recognition for excellence and efficiency
-amongst lowest death rates and highest life expectancy (78)
-sends professionals over to third world
sociological explanation: modernisation solutions to overpopulation
three clear solutions
1-family planning
china one child policy (those going against it were fined and stripped of state benefits)
2-western aid
used to encourage adoption of family planning and health education policies, over $400 million on population stabilisation when birth rates started to fall
CATELY-CARLSON wests motives questioned, as contraception seen to reduce population so control can be easily asserted
3- education of women
based on assumption that given the choice, women would want fewer children if employment opportunities were improved
AO3
Cohen and Kennedy, predictions of population explosions are based on current trends, these are often wrong however as people change conduct in response to earlier warnings (food production has actually increased due to technology)
sociological explanation:
dependency theory (population)
critical of neo-malthusianism
1)ADAMSON, misunderstand relationship between poverty and population. Poverty causes high population due to children being economic assets, birth control programmes will fail if poverty is not tackles ‘look after the population and the population will take care of itself’
2) differences between experience of developed and developing countries that undermine neo-malthusianism theory eg
-population growth in developing world = shorter period of time
-europe = relatively wealthy before industrialisation so didn’t face problems such as poverty and debt like developing world does
-more opportunities for europeans as population increased just as industrialisation did
3) developing world having ‘too many babies’ is wrong, high population growth is due to decline in death rate EBERSTADT ‘it’s not because people started breeding like rabbits but because they stopped dying like flies’
4)ADAMSON real problem is not overpopulation but overconsumption. unequal global distribution of resources, food, energy is more important for caue of underdevelopment. West’s wasteful nature
average american consumes 300x more energy a day than Bangladeshi
women in developing countries
although women in developed world lag behind men in terms of pay and opportunities, they enjoy opportunities regarding legal rights, education, health, jobs SUGGESTING greater equality with men than experienced by developing world
patriarchy isn’t dead in west but also isn’t threatening women’s lives as it does in the developing world
Leonard
conditions of underdevelopment, dependency, powerlessness, vulnerability and inequality of income are experienced by women to a greater extent than men
Steinem
fifth world = women in developing countries, more at risk than men of poverty, poor healthcare and exploitation in factories as well as sex trade
e.g
90million girls receive no education at all in DW
women more likely to experience violence than men- rape as a weapon of war
africa, 6000 a day victim to fgm
modernisation position of women in developing countries
-blames internal cultural factors for women’s subordination
-cultures (especially religious ideals) ascribe status on basis of gender
Van Der Gagg, in some cultures birth of boy is celebrated whereas birth of girl is a commiseration
mod- another obstacle for women is they can’t contribute to economy and status as mother contributing to overpopulation
-commission for africa, ‘getting girls into school is crucial for development’ as raises economic productivity, infant mortality lowered, and nutrition and health improved
mod also say attitudinal changes NEED to happen, encouragement to see female peers as equals
feminist perspective (gender) scott
Scott, modernisation theory is malestream as it’s underpinned by patriarchal inequality- the feminised world of extended family is an obstacle that challenges traditional norms
-the modernisation theory argues the nuclear family and rational modes of thinking are more conductive to development
-also criticises modernisation for assuming women would be more productive if access to technology and family planning is granted (IGNORES PATRIARCHAL STRUCTURE)
-scott = also criticism of dependency as ignores women all together
feminist perspective
(gender) Boserup and leonard
marginalisation of women
western aid agenciues assume modernisation means imposing western ideas of sexual division of labour
traditionally women are main food producers in african societies but new technologies introduced by modernisation focus on training men to use the, and as a result marginalising women
Leonard, aid is NOT gender neutral, comes with male orientated western values
aid planners neglect other factors surrounding females such as domestic tasks due to it not being ‘real work’ as it’s unwaged
also mistakenly see men as breadwinner, africa, men unused to this status and see their wages as their own, not their families
HOWEVER
chowdhry, criticises these as
assumes if aid did target women their status would improve, neglects factors such as class, ethnicity etc
current state of global education
evidence regarding global education is not positive
1 in 4 developing world children lacked basic literacy skills
poor quality education created ‘legacy of illiteracy’
that was more widespread than previously believed
250million children not learning basic reading and maths skills despite being in school for around 4yrs
many DW have increased teacher numbers by hiring people without training to encourage intake but this jeopardises education quality and develops a global learning crisis
around 100 years behind (average levels of attainment)
role of education
one MDG focuses on making primary education universal as many believe it’s a basic human right as is key to breaking viscous cycle and gives women more opportunities
modernisation on education
subscribe to human capital theory, if moeny is invested into the population, the return in terms of skill, aspiration and efficiency will benefit the economy
Hoselitz, meritocratic education system speeds up process of development through quicker spread of western values such as individualism, competition and achievement
SEN, asian tiger economies, so successful due to their schooling and high literacy rates (education unlocked their economic success)
dependency theory on education
inequalities between developed and developing world due to
-lsck of finsncial resources to invest
-imf or wb attached conditions to loans that insist on cutting public spending on free education
-parents may prefer their child to work or see no value of education
even if school is attended, it’s often located in inadequate buildings with no materials, textbooks, resources etc.
attendance, illness, civil war
FREIRE imposing western style education on developing countries = inappropriate
should focus on developing worlds values such as environment, collaboration, indigenous culture
MCCLOSKEY development of education should focus on educating those in the developed world to understand the underlying causes of global inequality
real causes
-unequal nature of trade
-ineffectiveness of aid
-debt undermines education and health
-exploitation by tncs
-conditions attached to loans
-if they knew these real causes they might support anti-globalism movements
sustainable and appropriate development
sustainable
greater responsibility for global environment
acknowledge that poverty causes this
solution= more equitable economic relationship reducing need for poor to over exploit land
rich countries should prioritise clean air over living standards
but don’t e.g china refused to adopt environmental goals as stops people enjoying their living standards
appropriate
small is beautiful view
ecological over gnp
e.g wind or solar power, sustainable and run by local experts
Elkington- if world doesnt put environmental and social responsibility on a similar level to economic prosperity then we will run into extinction
sustainable and appropriate development
sustainable
greater responsibility for global environment
acknowledge that poverty causes this
solution= more equitable economic relationship reducing need for poor to over exploit land
rich countries should prioritise clean air over living standards
but don’t e.g china refused to adopt environmental goals as stops people enjoying their living standards
appropriate
small is beautiful view
ecological over gnp
e.g wind or solar power, sustainable and run by local experts
Elkington- if world doesnt put environmental and social responsibility on a similar level to economic prosperity then we will run into extinction
brain drain (employment)
dodain and laporte
developed world takes all skilled developing world workers
