families and households

Question 1

Palmer
(childhood)

Answer 1

Toxic childhood due to technology and cultural changes

e.g junk food and computer games

UNICEF 16/29 children’s wellbeing

Question 2

Postman + A03
(childhood)

Answer 2

Childhood is disappearing at a dazzling speed due to disappearance of unsupervised games and growing similarities between adults e.g crime from children

print culture

middle ages - illiterate

ARIES -information hierarchy- sharp division between adults who can read and children who cannot, gave adults power to keep knowledge about violence, sex, death etc

TV blurs this distinction between adulthood and childhood as it doesn’t require special skills to understand

A03
-Opie and Opie, childhood games stand the test of time

Question 3

Gittins
(childhood)

Answer 3

Age patriarchy, adult domination and child dependency

Question 4

Aries
(childhood)

Answer 4

Childhood and adulthood once were the same

Question 5

Parsons + A03
(couples)

Answer 5

expressive and instrumental roles

based on biological differences

A03
wilmott and young

feminists

Question 6

Bott
(couples)

Answer 6

joint and segregated conjugal roles

Question 7

Wilmott and Young + A03
(couples)

Answer 7

mop view, progress = gradual

roles are now more similar than once were as:
-women work
-men help with housework
-leisure time spent together

within London study they found this as more common among young couples.

They see this rise of new family as a result of social change
-women’s changing position
-geographical mobility
-new technology
-higher living standards

A03
Oakley- exaggerated
15% husbands housework
25% husbands childcare

Question 8

Feminist view on housework
(couples)

Answer 8

-women unequal within family
-women = subordinate and dependent role

Warde and Hetherington - sex-typing domestic tasks still relevant today
e.g wives 30x more likely to be last person to have washed up and husbands 4x more likely to be last to wash car

Question 9

dual burden
(couples)

Answer 9

Oakley
women burdened with housework and paid work

Question 10

new man
(couples)

Answer 10

helps with domestic tasks and childcare, rejects sexism

Question 11

triple shift
(couples)

Answer 11

Duncombe and Marsden
emotional work
paid work
housework

Question 12

Feminist view on couples becoming equal
(couples)

Answer 12

not equal 2012, men do 8hrs housework a week vs women’s 13 hrs
dual burden
triple shift
no new man

Question 13

Crompton and Lyonette
unequal division of labour and supporting evidence
(couples)

Answer 13

cultural/ideological explanation
-determined by patriarchal norms, women perform domestic tasks because society expects them to

evidence for cultural:
-Gershuny, couples whose parents had equal relationship too were more equal (passed down norms)
-Dunne lesbian couples had more symmetrical roles due to absence of gender scripts

material/economic explanation
-women earn less so economically rational for them to do more housework

evidence for material:
-Kan, for every £10,000 a year more a woman earns she does 2 hours less housework per week

Question 14

Money management
Phal and Vogler
(couples)

Answer 14

allowance system
-men give wives an allowance which they are required to budget

pooling
-both have access and joint responsibility of expenditure when it comes to income

Question 15

Decision making
Edgells
(couples)

Answer 15

very important e.g moving house made by husband

important e.g children’s education made jointly

less important e.g food purchases made by wife

Question 16

PLP on money
(couples)

Answer 16

focuses on the meanings couples give to those who control money

we presume its a sign of inequality but this isn’t correct

Smart- same sex couples, attach no importance to who controlled money and happily allow their partners to

Weeks- co independence, sharing but each have independent accounts

Question 17

Dobash and Dobash
(DV)

Answer 17

police and court records and interviews with women

found violent incidents could be set off by what a husband saw as a challenge to his authority e.g his wife asking why he was home late for a meal

marriage legitimises violence by upholding dependency on wives

Question 18

Walby and Allen
(DV)

Answer 18

women more likely to be victims of multiple incidents of abuse and sexual violence

Question 19

Official stats
(DV)

Answer 19

understate true extent of the problem becayse..

-victims unwilling to to report to police (Yearnshire, 35 assaults before making a report , least reported violent crime)

-Police and prosecutors may be reluctant to record, investigate and prosecute cases reported (Cheal, reluctance is due to the fact that police and other state agencies aren’t prepared to become involved in the family due to making 3 assumptions: 1-private sphere, 2-family is good so dark side is neglected, 3-individuals are free agents so women are free to leave if being abused)

Question 20

Radical feminist explanation
(DV)

Answer 20

emphasises role of patriarchal ideologies, cultural values and institutions

Millet, Firestone

family and marriage = key institutes in patriarchal society and main source of women’s oppression

Men dominate women through DV and this is inevitable

A03
-fails to explain female violence
-Faith robertson elliot, not all men benefit from violence against women and not all men are aggressive

Question 21

Materialist explanation
(DV)

Answer 21

focuses on economic and material factors such as inequalities in income and housing

Wilkinson and Pickett, DV is result of stress on family members caused by social inequalities e.g low income have bigger money worries leading to stress and restricted money leading to a smaller social circle reducing support under stress

those with less power, status and wealth are at greater risk to DV

A03
-don’t explain why women rather than men are the victims
-Marxist feminists agree, Ansley women are takers of shit

Question 22

Pilcher
(childhood)

Answer 22

most important feature of modern childhood is separateness

childhood is a clear distinct life stage which is emphasised through laws

golden age, quarentined

Question 23

Wagg
(childhood)

Answer 23

childhood is not universal and is socially constructed

Question 24

modern western notion of childhood
(childhood)

Answer 24

special time of life
golden age
separateness - Pilcher
quarantined
vulnerable
children’s lack of skills and knowledge lead to the need for socialisation

Question 25

cross-cultural differences
(childhood)

Answer 25

non-industrial societies, children were treated differently from western counterparts in 3 ways

1-take responsibility at an early age (Punch’s Bolivia study shows when children are 5 they begin work)

2-less value on obedience to adult authority (Frith, Tikopia, doing as they are told is a concession to be granted not an expectation)

3-sexual behaviours (Trobriand tribe, children encouraged to explore sexual behaviours)

Question 26

Aries and Shorter
(childhood)

Answer 26

Historical difference of childhood

Aries-middle ages- childhood didn’t exist (paintings)

children seen as ‘mini adults’ with same duties e.g law made no distinction between

Shorter, parental attitudes were also very different as high death rates encouraged neglect e.g referring to child as ‘it’ or using the same name for all children

Question 27

Emergence of childhood
(childhood)

Answer 27

Aries- emerged from 13th century

-schools specialised in education for the young
-distinction in clothing
-handbooks on child rearing

‘cult of childhood’
‘century of the child’

Question 28

Reasons for changing position of children
(childhood)

Answer 28

-laws restricting child labour
-compulsory schooling
-children’s rights
-decline in family size and imr

Question 29

Jenks
(childhood)

Answer 29

Postmodernity - childhood is not disappearing

childhood was preparation to become a productive adult

childhood is once again undergoing change from modernity to post modernity

relationships now more unstable, divorce common generating feelings of insecurity and as a result strengthening need for protection of children

surveillance is heightened

A03
-overgeneralising, implying all children are in the same position

Question 30

child cantered family
(childhood)

Answer 30

higher living standards

by age of 21 child has cost parents £227,000

Question 31

Conflict view
(childhood)

Answer 31

argue mop view that modern childhood is based on a false and idealised image that ignores important inequalities

criticise mop on 2 grounds:
1-inequalities among children
2-inequalities between children and adults are greater than ever through control, oppression and dependency.

Question 32

inequalities among children
(childhood)

Answer 32

don’t all share same status or experience 90% low birth weight born in developing world

gender differences, e.g bedroom culture

ethnic differences, e.g Bhatti found ideas of izzat could be a restriction of the behaviour of girls

class differences, e.g born into poor families more likely to die in infancy

Question 33

Inequalities between children and adults
(childhood)

Answer 33

Firestone and Holt, what mop consider to be protection is just forms of control

e.g protection from paid work just stops children’s independence leaving them powerless

neglect and abuse- childline over 20,000 a year

control over space- ‘no school children’ signs in shops

control over time- control routine e.g bedtime, meal times

control over bodies- hairstyles, clothing, piercings, washed, fed, smacked

control over access to resources- schooling and laws ensure economically dependent on adults

Question 34

Hockey and James
(childhood)

Answer 34

acting up- swearing, drinking

acting down- baby talk, being carried

Question 35

Murdock functions of the family + A03
(theories of family)

Answer 35

4 essential functions

1- socialisation (into societies norms and values)

2-economic (e.g food and shelter)

3-reproductive (without this society would not continue)

4-sexual (prevents social disruption)

A03
- could be easily performed by other family types
- rose tinted view, neglects conflict

Question 36

Parsons functional fit
(theories of family)

Answer 36

The functions that the family perform will depend on the society in which it’s found

2 types of family structures = nuclear and extended

the structure and functions of a family type will ‘fit’ the needs of society.

modern industrial society (nuclear family)

pre industrial society (extended family)

industrial society has 2 essential needs:
1- geographically mobile workforce (PI lived in same place, but in industrial industries constantly move which is easier for nuclear rather than extended)

2- socially mobile workforce (constantly evolving technology means talented individuals need to take on the most important jobs regardless of backgrounds. Industrial society status is not ascribed but down to individual efforts. Best for nuclear as if son gets better status than dad it could cause conflict at home)

results in nuclear family which is structurally isolated from extended kin

Question 37

Parsons Loss of functions and 2 essential ones
(theories of family)

Answer 37

pre industrial family = multi-functional unit e.g family farm

when society industrialises it loses functions

family ceases to be a unit of production, work moves into factories and they become a unit of consumption

as a result nuclear family specialises in 2 essential functions:
1- primary socialisation
2- stabilisation if adult personalities

Question 38

Inheritance of property
(theories of family)

Answer 38

Engles

earliest classless society = primitive communism (no private property but means of production owned communally)

no families but promiscuous horde as Engles states whereby theres no restrictions on sexual relationships

increased wealth came with the introduction of private property, this change brought about patriarchal nuclear family

monogamy = essential due to inheritance of private property, men had to be certain of their legitimate heirs

A03
Assumes nuclear family is dominant

Question 39

Ideological function of the family
(theories of family)

Answer 39

Zaretsky

Family performs key ideological functions for capitalism

socialising children into the idea that hierarchy and inequalities are inevitable

parental power asserts idea there always has to be someone in charge and prepares them for capitalist lifestyle

offers safe haven from capitalist world, offering them a private life yet this is an illusion

A03
Ignores benefits of family (functionalist) e.g warm bath

Question 40

Family as a Unit of consumption
(theories of family)

Answer 40

capitalism exploits workers

family generates profits for them

‘keep up with the Jonses’

Pester power

A03
overestimates power

Question 41

Marxist perspective on the family
(theories of family)

Answer 41

1- ideological function
2- inheritance
3- unit of consumption

Question 42

Liberal feminist
(theories of family)

Answer 42

campaign against injustice for women
e.g sex discrimination equal pay (allow employment)
divorce reform (marital rights)
family planning act (reproductive rights)

gradually being overcome but not there yet

A03
other feminists- fails to challenge underlying causes of women’s oppression and believes law change will make difference

Question 43

Marxist feminist
(theories of family)

Answer 43

Main cause of women’s oppression is capitalism

Women’s oppression performs functions for capitalism:
1- reproduce labour force

2-absorb anger(Ansley)

3-reserve army of cheap labour

Question 44

Radical feminist
(theories of family)

Answer 44

men are the enemy, family and marriage are the key institutions

patriarchal system needs to be abolished for equality, this can only be achieved through separatism

political lesbianism to avoid sleeping with the enemy
Greer- all female matrilocal households

A03
Somerville- fail to recognise the change of women’s position as it has improved somewhat

not realistic approach

Question 45

Difference feminist
(theories of family)

Answer 45

we cannot generalise all women’s experiences.

Whether it’s lesbian or heterosexual, mc or wc, white or black, they all have different experiences

e.g white feminists see family as negative, neglecting black women’s racial oppression

Instead, black women see the family as positive due to it’s support

A03
difference feminism neglects the fact that all women share many of the same experiences e.g low pay

Question 46

Weaknesses PLP believe marx, func and fem suffer
(theories of family)

Answer 46

1- assume traditional nuclear family is dominant
(ignores family diversity)

2- structural theories
(assume passive puppets)

Question 47

PLP view on family
(theories of family)

Answer 47

bottom up approach

focuses on meanings and how these shape actions

beyond blood and marriage/chosen families

see relationships with those not relatives e.g friends, dead relatives, pets (Tipper)

A03
too broad a view, removes sacred title of relationships

Question 48

Donor conceived children
(theories of family)

Answer 48

Nordqvist and Smart

importance of social relationships over genetic ones

what defines a mother, effort or cells

Question 49

birth rate
(demography)

Answer 49

long term decline

1900 - 28.7
2014 - 12.2

2 factors affecting birth rate = proportion of women at childbearing age and how fertile they are

Question 50

total fertility rate
(demography)

Answer 50

average number of children women will have during their fertile years

1960 - 2.95
2014 - 1.83

changes due to more women now remaining childless and women postponing having children

Question 51

reasons for decline in birth rate
(demography)

Answer 51

1- changes in women’s position
2- decline in imf
3-economic liability
4-child centeredness

Question 52

changes in women’s position as an explanation for decline in birth rate
(demography)

Answer 52

20th century changes
-legal equality e.g right to vote
-educational opportunities
-more women in paid employment
-divorce more common
-access to contraception and abortion

Harper
education = most important as led to a change in mindset for women
2012 1 in 5 childless, this was double the number 25 years earlier

Question 53

decline imr as an explanation for decline in birth rates
(demography)

Answer 53

imr- number of infants that die before their 1st birthday, per thousand alive babies born per year

Harper states a fall in imr leads to fall in birth rate as if infants die parents have more children to make up for this loss, if infants survive parents will have fewer

-improved housing and sanitation
-better nutrition
-better knowledge of hygiene

1900 - 154
2012 - 4

Question 54

Children being an economic liability as an explanation for decline in birth rates
(demography)

Answer 54

until late 19th century children were economic assets as went out for work however since then they’ve become economic liabilities

-laws, banning of child labour and introduction of compulsory schooling
-changing norms, about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms, therefore cost of children has increased

Question 55

child centredness as an explanation for decline in birth rate
(demography)

Answer 55

childhood now socially constructed as an important time period (Pilcher)

encouraged shift from quantity to quality

Question 56

future of birth rates
(demography)

Answer 56

since 2001 slight increase

because of the increase of immigration

on average mother’s born outside uk accounted for 25% of all births in 2011, this is expected to increase

Question 57

effects on changes in fertility
(demography)

Answer 57

• family (smaller families mean women are more likely to go out to work, creating dual earners)

-dependency ratio (relationship between size of working population vs non working population. earnings, taxes and savings of working population must support the dependent population, children make up a large part of the dependent population. However due to less babies being born the working population will eventually be smaller so burden of dependency will increase + vanishing children = lonelier childhood)

-public services and policies (fewer schools etc needed, effects type of housing and maternity. Ageing population, more old relative to young)

Question 58

Death rates
(demography)

Answer 58

number of deaths per thousand of the population per year

1900 - 19
2012 - 8.9

Question 58

improved nutrition as an explanation for decline in death rates
(demography)

Answer 58

McKeown -

accounts for up to half reduction in deaths, particularly important in reducing TB

better nutrition increased survival chances of those who became infected

A03
doesn’t explain why females receive a smaller share of family food supply , live longer than males

Question 58

reasons for decline in death rate
(demography)

Answer 58

diseases of affluence - Tranter

Improved nutrition - McKewon

Medical improvements

Smoking and diet - Harper

Question 59

medical improvements as an explanation for decline in death rate
(demography)

Answer 59

improved medical knowledge, techniques and organisation helped to reduce the death rate

e.g introduction of antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusion, NHS

Question 60

smoking and diet as an explanation for decline in death rates
(demography)

Answer 60

Harper -
reduction in number of people smoking

21st century obesity has replaced smoking as new lifestyle epidemic e.g 2012 1 quarter of all UK adults were obese

May be moving to an ‘American health culture’ where lifestyles are unhealthy but a long lifespan is achieved through costly medication

Question 61

life expectancy
(demography)

Answer 61

how long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live. as death rates have fallen, life expectancy has increased

males 1900 - 50 (57 females)

males 2013 - 90.7 (94 females)

Question 62

The ageing population
(demography)

Answer 62

Hirsch - average age of uk population is rising

2013 - 40.3
2037 - 42.8

Hirsch, notes the traditional age pyramid is disappearing and being replaced by more equal ‘blocks’

ageing of the population is caused by 3 factors:

1- increasing life expectancy (people living longer)

2- declining imf (hardly anyone dies early in life)

3- declining fertility (fewer younger people being born in relation to older)

Question 63

effects of ageing population
(demography)

Answer 63

-public services
older people consume larger portion of public services (more money spent on care homes, transport etc)

-one person pensioner
number has increased, now account for about 12.5% of households, mostly female

-dependency ratio
non-working old are economically dependent and need to be provided for by those working e.g taxations to pay for pensioners healthcare.

Question 64

ageism, 2 perspectives
(demography)

Answer 64

negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of people on the basis of their age

-result of structured dependency, elderly are excluded from paid work forcing them to be dependent on the working population

Marxist: Phillipson
-no use to capitalist society as no longer productive proletariat
-burden to relatives
-elderly made dependent and powerless

Postmodernists: Hunt
-roles and life stages aren’t fixed, blurred
-individuals greater choice of lifestyle
-people always free to choose identities through lifestyle so sold become market for body maintenance through cosmetic surgery or gym memberships
-these trends break down ageist stereotypes
-centrality of media (media now portrays positive aspects of elderly lifestyle)
-emphasis on surface features (body becomes a surface by which we can construct own identities, e.g anti ageing products

Question 65

Migration
(demography)

Answer 65

immigration- into society
emigration- out a society

20th - 1980s fewer immigrants than emigrants

2nd world war, irish, european jews, cananda and usa = largest groups of immigrants

1950 onwards, black immigrants began to arrive in uk

2011, ethnic minorities accounted for 14% population

Question 66

how to manage immigration , 2 main points
(demography)

Answer 66

politicians advocate for one of 2 approaches

1-assimilationism
(post 9/11) immigrants need to adopt language and values of host culture to make them ‘like us’ - absorbs migrants into society e.g France 2010 Burqa ban
A03 Castles, counterproductive as mark minority as culturally backwards, promotes anti terrorism as they believe the ‘enemy within’ and breeds further marginalisation

2-multiculturalism
-Erikson, globalisation has made migration flexible through individuals going ‘back and forth’ countries and having ‘neither nor’ identities e.g ‘britalian’
-technology aided this e.g strong contact whilst travelling
-accepts migrants wanting to retain identity but pick and choose what they deem as acceptable (social construct)

-shallow diversity, such as regarding chiken tikka masala as Britains national dish, is acceptable to the state
-deep diversity, such as arranged marriages, is not acceptable to the state

-critics argue education system = shallow diversity through celebrating superficial cultural differences, such as ‘samosas and steel bands’ whilst ignoring deeper problems such as racism

a divided working class:
-assimilationist aslo encourages workers to blame migrants for social problems such as unemployment ( racial scapegoating

Question 67

globalisation of migration
(demography) 3 main points

Answer 67

acceleration
-speeding up of migration rate (33% by 2013)

differentiation
-permanent settlers, temporary workers, spouses, forced migrants e.g refugees
-globalisation increases diversity (2014 students, more chinese born than uk born postgraduates)
-super diversity (Vertovec) now come from wider range of countries, different ethnic groups, legal status.
-Cohen distingushes class difference between migrats
1 citizens (full citizenship rights)
2 denizens (privledged foreign natinals welcomed by state)
3 helots (slaves, most exploited group, disposable units of labour power, unskilled, illegally trafficked)

feminisation
-in past most were men, now half of all are female
-Hoschild, care, sex aand domestic work done by those from poor countries as a result of:
1 expansion of service occupations led to increase demand of female labour
2 western women joined labour force and are less willing or able to complete domestic tasks
3 western men remain unwilling to perform domestic labour
4 failure of state to provide adequate childcare

40% adult care nurses are migrants

global transfer of womens emotional labour (migrant nannies that left children behind are caring towards employers children)

Question 68

inequality among the old
(demography)

Answer 68

Pilcher
class - mc better occupational pensions and greater savings from higher salaries.
Poorer have shorter life expectancy and suffer more

gender- women’s lower earnings and career breaks means lower pensions, subject to sexist and ageist stereotypes e.g old hags

-restricts freedom

Question 69

impact of migration
(demography)

Answer 69

-recent years seen increase in both

-population size, increases

-age structure, lowers average age og population
directly - younger (uk passport holder 41, non uk 31)
indirectly - being younger = more fertile

-dependency ratio, 3 effects
1- working age, lowers dependency ratio

2-more children, increases ratio, join labour force lowers again

3-longer settled, closer fertility becomes, reduces overall impact

Question 70

changing patterns of divorce
(changing family patterns)

Answer 70

40% marriages end in divorce

reasons:
-changes in law
-declining stigma
-secularisation
-higher expectations of marriage
-womens financial independence
-feminist explanantions
-modernity and individualisation

Question 71

reasons for increase in divorce
(changing family patterns)

Answer 71

changes in law
-equalising grounds
-widening grounds
-cheaper

declining stigma - mitch goody
-churches used to condemn divorce
- now socially acceptable

secularisation
-decline in influence of religion
-church attendance rates continue to decline

rising expectations if marriage - Fletcher
-less willing to tolerate unhappy marriages
-ideology of romantic love
- most remarry
AO3, feminists, rosy view, marital conflict due to female oppression

financial independence
-improvements in women’s economic position
- freer to leave unsatisfactory marriage as no longer financially dependent on them
-greater success in education

Question 72

feminist explanation for increase of divorce (changing family patterns)

Answer 72

-dual burden, new source of conflict
-improvements in rest of society e.g education and work but marriage still limits women’s potential due to triple shift

Question 73

modernity approach to increase in divorce rates
(changing family patterns)

Answer 73

• Beck and Giddens, traditional norms such as duty to remain with partner lose meaning
  -individuals free to pursue self interest
  relationships become fragile
  -Giddens, pure relationship, exists to satisfy one another’s needs and not out of duty
  -divorce normalised
  -encouraged individualism e.g career which causes marital conflict

Question 74

meaning of high divorce rate
(changing family patterns)

Answer 74

the new right
-high divorce rate = undesirable as undermines traditional nuclear family
-creates growing underclass

feminists
-desirable as shows women breaking free

postmodernists
-shows individuals have more freedom

functionalist
-result of peoples high expectations of marriage, remarriage rates show continued like for commitment of marriage

interactionist
-cannot generalise ideas
-some see it as good some see it as bad (Goody interviews)

personal life perspective
-accept it causes issues but see it’s become normalised
-shouldn’t see it as a social problem

Question 75

changing patterns of marriage
(changing family patterns)

Answer 75

-at lowest since 1920s
-more remarriages than ever
-serial monogamy, marraige-divorce-remarriage
-60 - 30% (20212) religious weddings

Question 76

reasons for decline in marriage
(changing family patterns)

Answer 76

changing attitudes
-less pressure to marry

decline in stigmas
-cohabitation
-children outside of marriage

changes in women’s position
-better education and career opportunities
-less economically dependent

secularisation
-2001 census 3% non religious not married vs 17% religious not married

fear of divorce
-40% marriages end in divorce

Question 77

cohabitation, marraige
(changing family patterns)

Answer 77

-rising
-2.9 million heterosexual
- 1 in 8 adults
-1/5 are serial cohabitations
-44% - 65% sex outside marriage is moral (2012)

Chester and Coast
-cohabitating is part of marriage process
-75% cohabitating couples expect to get married
-trial marriage

Question 78

same sex relationships, marriage
(changing family patterns)

Answer 78

-Stonewall estimates 5-7% adult population, not possible to judge past due to it being illegal
-2014 ability to marry

Question 79

chosen families
(changing family patterns)

Answer 79

• Weeks, gays create relationships through friendship as kinship
  -chosen families offer same security as heterosexual families

Question 80

one-person household
(changing family patterns)

Answer 80

40% over 65
-2013, 1 in 10 households

-following divorce children more likely to live with mother and father more likely to leave family home

Question 81

living apart together
(changing family patterns)

Answer 81

-2013, 1 in 10adults in stable relationships but live apart
-account for around half people classes as ‘single’

Duncan and Phillips
-choice and constraint, some can’t afford, some actively chose as feel it’s ‘too early’ to cohabit

Question 82

childbearing
(changing family patterns)

Answer 82

-nearly half of all children are born outside a marriage
-women having children later 2012 = 28.1
-fewer children
or remaining childless

reason:
-increased opportunities for women
-decline in stigma

Question 83

lone parent families
(changing family patterns)

Answer 83

• 1 in 4 children, 90% headed by mothers
  -children living with lone parent = twice as likely to be in poverty

reason:
-increase of divorce
-decline in stigma of babies outside marriage

tend to be female headed for several reasons:
-women expressive/nurture
-custody usually goes to mother
-men less willing to give up work

lone parenthood, welfare state and poverty
-new right, Murray, growth = result of over generous welfare state
-created a perverse incentive (rewards irresponsible behaviour)
-dependency culture
AO3
-welfare isnt generous as 60% unemployed due to lack of affordable childcare
-women, earn less than men
-failure of fathers to pay maintenance

Question 84

stepfamilies
(changing family patterns)

Answer 84

or reconstructed families account for 10%of all families

greater risk of poverty due to more children to support

Question 85

black families
(changing family patterns)

Answer 85

-higher proportion of lone parent families
-evidence of family disorganisation
-traced back to slavery as when sold separately children would go with mother, this established a pattern that family life follows
-Mizra, reflects high value black women put on independence

Question 86

asian families
(changing family patterns)

Answer 86

-tend to be larger and sometimes contains 3 generations
-value placed on extended family but also provides assistance when migrating
-now usually nuclear but relatives live nearby
-kinship networks = source of support

Question 87

extended family
(changing family patterns)

Answer 87

-Charles, classic 3 generation family all living together under one roof is now all but extinct

-Wilmott, states it continues to exist but is now a dispersed extended family where relatives are geographically separated but maintain in frequent contact

-Bell, extended family supports family, emotional bond between kin
mc- financial help from father to son
wc- domestic help from mother to daughter

Question 88

beanpole family
(changing family patterns)

Answer 88

-long and thin
-extended vertically 3 or more generations of grandparents, parents and children
-not extended horizontally so doesn’t include aunties and uncles etc
result of:
1 increased life expectancy (more surviving grandparents)

2 smaller family sizes (fewer siblings)

Question 89

functionalism, modernism and nuclear family
(family diversity)

Answer 89

Parsons ‘functional fit’
-nuclear family is uniquely suited to fit needs of modern society for geographically and socially mobile workforce
-2 functions, primary socialisation and stabilisation of adult personalities
-considers other family types as dysfunctional

Question 90

the new right, modernism and the nuclear family
(family diversity)

Answer 90

-firmly opposes family diversity
-only correct family type is traditional nuclear family

-family is natural and based off biological differences
-family is the cornerstone of society that offers refuge, harmony and contentment

-decline of nuclear family and growth of family diversity is why we have social problems

-lone parenthood in particular as it’s harmful to children
-lone mothers cannot discipline properly
-boys left without male role model

AO3
-Oakley, roles aren’t fixed by biology
-feminists conventional family oppresses women

Question 91

cohabitation vs marriage
tnr (family diversity)

Answer 91

-main cause of lone parent families = collapse of relationships between cohabitating couples

-Benson, couples more stable whilst married, rate of divorce among married couples is lower than breakups among cohabitating

• marriage is more stable as requires deliberate commitment unlike cohabitation

-family/society is broken
-only a return of traditional views can prevent social disintegration
-laws making things like divorce easier undermine the conventional family

Question 92

Chester, neo conventional family
(family diversity)

Answer 92

family diversity has been exaggerated

-only important change was from a conventional nuclear family to a neo conventional family

-neo conventional =dual earner family(similar to symmetrical family)

-nuclear family remains what people aspire to

-statistics on households are misleading and is merely a snapshot of a single moment in time, doesn’t show that most people will or would already of been in a nuclear family

Question 93

Rapoports
(family diversity)

Answer 93

diversity is central importance in understanding family life today

-moved away from traditional nuclear family as dominant type

-diversity = positive

5 types

1-organisational diversity (how roles are organised e.g segregated or joint conjugal roles, single or dual earners)

2-cultural diversity
(cultural, religious and ethnic groups have different family structures, e.g black Caribbean are female headed lone parent whereas Asian families are extended)

3-social class diversity
(result of income differences)

4-life stage diversity
(differ according to life stage e.g young newlyweds, widowed, retired whose children have grown up)

5-generational diversity
(older and younger generations have different attitudes and experiences, e.g different views about divorce)

Question 94

Post modernism
(family diversity)

Answer 94

Cheal, no longer in a predictable modern society but a new chaotic post modern one

-no longer a single dominant family type

-greater freedom but greater instability

Stacey, postmodern families
-greater freedom and choice has benefit women
-life history interviews showed women being main agents of changes in the family
-reject traditional norms, went back to education, got job, divorced and remarried
-‘divorce extended family’ members connected by divorce rather than marriage
-key members usually female
-helped one another financially and domestically
-diverse and shaped by how they chose to live life

-Morgan, no point in trying to generalise family
-simply whatever arrangements those involved choose to call their family

Question 95

the individualisation thesis
(family diversity)

Answer 95

Beck and Giddens
-traditional social structures (class,gender etc) has lost influence over us
-e.g marriage was once restricted but now is more free
-become disembedded from traditional roles and structures
-‘standard biography’ replaced by ‘do it yourself biography’

leads to..
-choice
-pure relationships (Giddens)
-same sex couples as pioneers
-negotiated family (Beck)

AO3
-exaggerates choice
-sees individuals as free floating when in reality decisions are made within a social context
-ignores structural factors such as social class

Question 96

Giddens

Answer 96

family more equal due to
-contraception, allowed sex rather than reproduction
-women gaining independence, leading to greater opportunities in work and education

due to this, marriage has changed as it was once a force that held by external forces such as laws and norms

pure relationship
-relationships no longer bound to traditional norms
-key feature is that it solely exists to satisfy each partners needs
-therefore only lasts as long as both partners act in their own interests
-stay together due to love and happiness not just for the sake of children
-free to enter or leave as they see fit
-as a result = less stability

same sex couples as pioneers
-leading the way towards new family types and equal relationships
-not influenced by heterosexual gender roles
-allowed for them to negotiate personal relationships and structure family so it serves their needs

weeks- gay, friendship on kinship

Question 97

negotiated family
(family diversity)

Answer 97

Beck
-risk society

-people make choices based on calculations of what benefits them

-patriarchal family undermines due to greater gender equality and greater individualism

-negotiated family does not confrom to traditional family norm but vary according to wishes and expectations of members

-zombie family- appears alive but is dead due to inability to provide due to it’s own instability

Question 98

The connectedness thesis
(family diversity)

Answer 98

PLP, Smart

-fundamentally social beings whose choices are made within a web of connectedness

-live within networks of existing relationships which strongly influence decisions

-e.g class and gender
-after divorce, soocial norm is that women take custody which limits their relationships moving forwards

-men usually paid better so they have greater freedom and choice regarding relationships

-power of structures

-embedded within family connections

-plp, importance of social structures in shaping freedoms

Question 99

functionalist perspective on social policy
(social policy)

Answer 99

policies are good as they help families to perform functions
-Fletcher, health, education and housing policies since industrial revolution has gradually increased development of welfare state which supports family

AO3
1 assumes all members benefit equally (feminists argue they only benefit men)

2 assumes there’s a march of progress (Marxists argue policies can turn back the clock and reverse previously made progress)

Question 100

Donzelot, policing of the family
(social policy)

Answer 100

conflict view

-policies as a form of control from the state

-uses Foucault’s concept of surveillance

-professionals such as doctors or social workers use their power to turn them into ‘cases’ to be dealt with

-not targeted equally, poor = problem families and cause of crime

AO3
-fails to identify who benefits from these policies

Question 101

The new right
(social policy)

Answer 101

-state policies encourage changes that undermine the nuclear family

-Almond, civil partnerships undermine heterosexual marriage as superior
-laws making divorce easier undermines idea of marriage as lifelong commitment

increased rights for cohabitating couples e.g adoption rights, make cohabitation and marriage similar, suggests they don’t see marriage as special anymore

Murray- lone parenthood
-generous welfare benefits provide preserve incentive as rewards irresponsible behaviour
-policies encourage dependency culture
-threatens socialisation of young and maintenance of work ethic among men

solution:
-policies changed, cuts on welfare and eligibility for benefits
-advocate policies that favour traditional nuclear family such as taxes that favour married rather than cohabitating

AO3
-Wrongly assumes patriarchal nuclear family is natural rather than socially constructed
-cutting benefits simply drive poor families into worse conditions

Question 102

new rights influence on policies
(social policy)

Answer 102

conservative, 79-97
-Thatcher, banned promotion of homosexuality
-defined divorce as social problem
-child support agency to ensure maintenance payments by absent parents
-HOWEVER introduced divorce to be easier

new labour 97-2010
-rejects new right view that family should have just one male earner and recognises women going out to work
-favoured dual earners
-longer maternity leave
-working families tax credit
-new deal (help lone parents return to work)

-support for alternative family types
-civil partnerships for same sex couples

conservative, 2010
-divided by 2 groups
modernists (accept change)
traditionalists (favour new right view)
-difficult to maintain consistent policy line
-introduced gay marriage

Question 103

feminism
(social policy)

Answer 103

-policies based on assumptions of ideal family
-Land, social policies assume this is patriarchal nuclear family
-acts as sfp for women as seen as homemaker and childcare
-e.g tax incentives for married not cohabitating couples

policies supporting patriarchal family
-Leonard, maternity leave seems to benefit women but actually reinforced patriarchy as is more generous that paternity pay suggesting it is responsibility of mother to care for child

AO3
-equal pay, sex discrimination
-

Question 104

gender regimes
(social policy)

Answer 104

Drew

familistic gender regimes:
policies based on traditional gender division so see man as breadwinner and woman as homemaker

e.g Greece, little funding for childcare so women rely on support from extended kin

individualistic gender regimes:
policies see men and women as equal so are equally entitled to state benfits

e.g Sweden, men and women less dependent due to policies seeing them separately

Question 105

state vs market
(social policy)

Answer 105

Drew,
european union countries moving towards more individualistic gender regimes, away from traditional patriarchal family

-policies such as funded childcare aren’t cheap so conflict arises over who pays for them and who benefits from them

-trend towards neo liberal welfare policies means families are encouraged to use market rather than state e,g private pension rather than public

-difference shows social policies are important in promoting or preventing gender equality within the family

Question 106

cross cultural examples
(social policy)

Answer 106

chinas one child policy
-population control
-couples who comply get benefits couples who don’t must pay a fine

communist Romania
-try to drive up birth rate
-restricted contraception, made divorce more difficult, legal age of marriage 15

Nazi family policy
-encouraged healthy and racially pure to breed a master race by restricting contraception
-compulsorily sterilised 375,000 disabled people deemd unfit to breed

Question 107

family policies

Answer 107

conservative
-section 28
-child support agency (make sure abscent fathers pay)

new labour
-paid paternity 2w
-sure start ema
-repeal 28
-civil partnership

coalition
-shared parental leave (split between)
-same sex marriages
-2 child limit benefits

conservative 2015
-closure of sure start
-freeze in working age benefits