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Body log > Glands > Flashcards

Glands Flashcards

1
Q

Define a gland

A

an epithelial cell or an aggregate of epithelial cells that are specialised for secretion of a substance

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2
Q

Define secretion

A

the production and release of materials by a cell or aggregate of cells

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3
Q

How are glands classified

A

by their structure

by how their products are released

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4
Q

what are the two types of structures of glands

A
  • endocrine
  • exocrine
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5
Q

what are the 3 different ways exocrine glands release their products

A
  • merocrine
  • apocrine
  • holocrine
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6
Q

What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands

A
  • endocrine (ductless)
    secreted directly into blood to travel to distant parts of the body
    secrete hormones only
  • exocrine (ducted)
    secrete through a duct
    secrete only enzymes or proteins
    only cells at the apex on duct secrete
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7
Q

Give examples of endocrine glands

A
  • thyroid
  • parathyroid
  • pituitary gland
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8
Q

give examples of exocrine glands

A
  • salivary glands
  • mammary
  • sweat glands
  • lacrimal glands
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9
Q

what is adenogenesis

A

in utero development of glands

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10
Q

describe the process of adenogenesis before specialisation of glands

A

1) growth signal received (FGF family member)

2) proliferation of cells occurs and extracellular protein degradation enzyme produced (creates space)

3) epithelial cells invade space created

4) specialisation

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11
Q

How do exocrine glands specialise

A

EXOCRINE
central cells die off to produce duct (canalicularisation)
still linked to mother cell
lots of branching

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12
Q

How do endocrine glands specialise

A

ENDOCRINE
produce angiogenic factors to stimulate blood vessel growth
link to mother cells broken through apoptosis
no branching

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13
Q

how do exocrine glands branch

A
  • FGF10 released by immature fibroblasts (mesenchymal stem cells )
  • epithelial cells move towards signal
  • two fates:
    tubule elongation
    tubule branching
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14
Q

Which growth factor is active and which one is inactive in tubule elongation

A

Growth factor 1 active

Growth factor 2 inactive

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15
Q

Which growth factor is active and which one is inactive in tubule branching

A

Growth factor 1 inactive

Growth factor 2 active

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16
Q

What is elongation and branching stopped by

A

Shh

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17
Q

what are the different shapes of exocrine glands

A
  • simple tubular
  • simple tubular branched
  • simple alveolar
  • simple branched alveolar
  • compound tubular
  • compound alveolar
  • compound tubuloalveolar
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18
Q

what is the difference between a simple duct structure and compound duct structure

A

simple ducts do not branch whil compound ducts branch

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19
Q

where are simple tubular ducts found

A

intestinal glands

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20
Q

where are simple branched tubular found

A

stomach glands

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21
Q

where are simple alveolar found

A

not in humans

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22
Q

where are simple branched alveolar found

A

sebaceous oil glands

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23
Q

where are compound tubular glands found

A

dudodenal glands of small intestine

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24
Q

where are compound alveolar ducts found

A

mammary glands

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25
Q

where are compound tubuloalveolar glands found

A

salivary glands

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26
Q

how many salivary glands are there

A

3

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27
Q

what type glands are found in salivary glands

A

compound tubuloalveolar glands

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28
Q

what are the two types of secretions found in salivary glands

A

mucus
serous

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29
Q

what are myoepithelial cells

A

secretory ends of ducts that have features of smooth muscle and epithelial cells
help eject secretions from duct

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30
Q

what is the smallest duct in salivary glands

A

intraobular duct

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31
Q

what is the second smallest duct in salivary gland

A

intercalated duct

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32
Q

what is the third size duct in salivary glands

A

striated duct

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33
Q

what is the largest duct in salivary gland

A

excretory duct

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34
Q

describe merocrine secretion and give an example

A

fusion of vesicles with membrane so no damage to cell a form of exocytosis

example: acinar and endocrine glands of pancreas

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35
Q

describe apocrine secretion and give an example

A

partial loss of cytoplasm

example: lactating mammary glands
sweat glands in axilla

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36
Q

describe holocrine secretion and give an example

A

complete loss of cytoplasm

example sebaceous glands in skin or tarsal glands in eyelid

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37
Q

what is cytocrine secretion

A

cells released as a secretion

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38
Q

what are the two types of secretion pathways of merocrine

A
  • regulated secretion
  • constitutive secretion
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39
Q

what is the regulated secretion pathway of merocrine secretion

A
  • secretory granules accumulate in large vesicles
  • vesicles released out of cell surface when signal arrives (Ca 2+ ions)
  • cargo released into extracellular space
  • active process
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40
Q

what are the contents of vesicles called

A

cargo

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41
Q

what is the constitutive secretion pathway of merocrine secretion

A
  • secretory product not concentrated into small granules but packaged into small vesicles
  • small vesicles continuously released to cell surface
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42
Q

give an example of regulated merocrine secretion

A

insulin release in pancreas

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43
Q

give an example of apocrine secretion

A

the breast

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44
Q

give an example of holocrine secretion

A

sebaceous gland

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45
Q

describe the merocrine secretion of insulin

A
  • glucose metabolised in cell mitochondria making ATP
  • ATP stimulates ATP sensitive K+ channel which moves K+ out of cell making inside more negative
  • causes calcium channel to move Ca2+ ions to move in
  • Ca2+ signal vesicles to fuse with mem
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46
Q

describe apocrine secretion of milk breasts

A
  • neonatal period : only fats secreted by apocrine
  • milk proteins made in RER and packaged into vesicles by golgi released by merocrine secretion
  • during lactation:
    both fats and proteins are released by apocrine secretion
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47
Q

what is exocytosis

A

secretion of molecules outside the cell via a vesicle fusing to mem

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48
Q

what is an example of exocytosis

A

formation of ion channels in kidney

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49
Q

what is endocytosis

A

engulfing of molecules inside the cell via vesicle formation

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50
Q

what is an example of endocytosis

A

endothelium
smooth muscle cells
adipose tissues

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51
Q

what is phagocytosis and what cells use it

A

process by which cells envelop or engulf other cells or particles
used by phagocytes or immune system cells

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52
Q

what is pinocytosis

A

the process by which liquic droplets are ingested by cells especially smooth muscle

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53
Q

what is the role of the Golgi apparatus

A
  • proteins containing vesicles from RER transfer substance to cis face of golgi
  • golgi chemically modified protein in its lumen
  • targets them to correct address leaving trans face
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54
Q

what is glycosylation

A

the covalent attachment of sugars by enzymes to proteins and lipids to form glycoproteins ad glycolipids

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55
Q

what are the roles of glycosylation

A
  • aid protein folding
  • prevents protein and lipids digestion by intracellular proteases and lipases
  • cell recognition
  • role on cell to extracellular matrix attachment
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56
Q

what are the four types of transepithelial transport

A
  • paracellular
  • transcellular
  • carrier proteins
  • endocytosis and exocytosis
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57
Q

what is paracellular transport

A

molecules move by passive diffusion through aqueous channels in the intercellular junction

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58
Q

what is transcellular transport

A

molecules move through lipid cell membranes

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59
Q

what is carrier protein transport

A

molecules are transported by carrier proteins into or out of the cells or by a counter transport process

60
Q

what are the three types of regulation of secretion

A
  • hormonal
  • neural
  • humoral
61
Q

how does hormonal regulation regulate secretion

A

peripheral endocrine glands products inhibit hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland

62
Q

how does neural regulation regulate secretion

A

the action produced inhibit nervous system

63
Q

how does humoral regulation regulate secretion

A

the action inhibits changing substance of in plasma levels

64
Q

what is a hormone

A

a chemical messenger produced by endocrine glands
released into bloodstream where they travel to target organs to regulate various processes

65
Q

where are endocrine tissues mainly found and what is the exception

A

mainly found in head and core due to 37 body temp other than testes which are external are prefer lower temp

66
Q

what are the two areas of the pituitary gland

A

anterior
posterior

67
Q

what hormones do the anterior pituitary gland secrete

A

TSH
ACTH
FSH
LH
GH
PRL
MSH

68
Q

what hormones do the posterior pituitary gland release

A

vasopressin (ADH)
oxytocin

69
Q

where is the pituitary gland located

A

base of brain below hypothalamus

70
Q

where is the thyroid gland located

A

anterior to trachea

71
Q

what hormones do thyroid glands release

A

thyroxine T4
triiodothyronine T3

72
Q

where is the parathyroid gland located

A

dorsal surface of the thyroid gland (4 in 2 pairs)

73
Q

what hormone does the parathyroid gland release

A

parathyroid hormone PTH

74
Q

where are the adrenal glands located

A

top of the superior poles of kidneys

75
Q

what hormones do the adrenal glands release

A

medulla- catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine)

cortex- corticosteriods,
glucocorticoids (cortisol, cortisone)
mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
androgenic steroid hormone precursors

76
Q

what are the four types of hormones

A
  • glycoproteins/ peptide hormones
  • steroid hormones
  • amino acid derived hormones
  • lipid hormones
77
Q

what are the two types of amino acid derivative hormones

A

catechloamines
thyroid hormones

78
Q

how are glycoprotein/peptide hormones synthesised and stored

A

made in advance
stored in secretory vesicles

79
Q

how are amino acid derivative hormones synthesised and stored

A

made in advance
stored in secretory vesicles

80
Q

how are steroid hormones synthesised and stored

A

synthesised on demand from precursors

81
Q

how are lipid hormones synthesised and stored

A

synthesised on demand from precursors

82
Q

how are glycoprotein/peptide hormones transported in blood

A

dissolved in plasma

83
Q

how are steroid hormones transported in blood

A

bound to carrier proteins

84
Q

how are catecholamine hormones transported in blood

A

dissolved in plasma

85
Q

how are thyroid hormones transported in blood

A

bound to carrier proteins

86
Q

how are lipid hormones transported in blood

A

dissolved in plasma and bound to carrier proteins

87
Q

where is the location of the receptors for glycoprotein and peptide hormones

A

cell membrane

88
Q

where is the location of the receptors for steroid hormones

A

cytoplasm or nucleus

89
Q

where is the location of the receptors for catechloamine hormones

A

cell membrane

90
Q

where is the location of the receptors for thyroid hormones

A

nucleus

91
Q

where is the location of the receptors for lipid hormones

A

cell membranes

92
Q

what is the response to glycoprotein/peptide hormones binding to receptors

A

activation of second messenger pathway and may activate gene expression

93
Q

what is the response to steroid hormones binding to receptors

A

activation of genes for transcription

94
Q

what is the response to catehloamines hormones binding to receptors

A

activation of second messenger systems

95
Q

what is the response to thyroid hormones binding to receptors

A

activation of genes for transcription

96
Q

what is the response to lipid hormones binding to receptors

A

cell membrane

97
Q

give examples of glycoproteins/peptide hormones

A

insulin, glucagon, prolactin, ACTH, PTH

98
Q

give examples of steroid hormones

A

oestrogen, androgens, progesterone
cortisol

99
Q

give examples of catechloamines hormones

A

adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine

100
Q

give examples of thyroid hormones

A

thyroxine T4
triiodothyronine T3

101
Q

give examples of lipid hormones

A

thromboxanes
prostaglandins
endocannabinoids

102
Q

what is the embryological origin of endocrine glands

A

during development epithelial tissues fold inwards or pinch off from epithelial layers to form glandular structures

103
Q

where does the thyroid gland develop from

A

develops from epithelial outgrowth of pharynx

104
Q

where do adrenal glands develop from

A

originate from the mesodermal epithelium and neural crest

105
Q

where does the pituitary gland develop from

A

develops from two epithelial derived structures
- oral ectoderm
- neural ectoderm

106
Q

how do endocrine glands transform from exocrine glands

A

endocrine glands loose their ducts during development
- as epithelial cells loose their ducts by the duct cells regressing which leaves a cluster of hormone secreting cells surrounded by a rich network of blood vessels

107
Q

how do exocrine glands structurally change to form endocrine glands

A

loose ducts
cells arrange themselves into cords or clusters surrounded by capilaires to facilitate rapid hormone secretion into blood

108
Q

what are the hypothalamus and pituitary gland know as

A

master gland

109
Q

what does the hypothalamus deal with

A
  • thermoregulation
  • plasma osmolality
  • heart rate and bp
  • reg of GI
  • circadian rhythms
  • ANS
  • emotion
  • lactation
110
Q

what does the hypothalamus produce

A
  • vasopressin ADH
  • oxytocin
111
Q

how are the hypothalamus and pituitary gland connected

A

hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system
- six hormones travel through this portal system to anterior pituitary where they are then released

112
Q

why is there always a small concentration of pituitary hormones in the blood

A

all pituitary hormones are all subject to constitutive and regulated merocrine secretion

113
Q

what is the difference between anterior and posterior pituitary lobes

A

neurones that produce hormones released from posterior pituitary lobe extend whole pituitary stalk while anterior neurones do not extend into the lobe

114
Q

what cells is the thyroid gland made up of

A

consists of follicles made up of principal cells that secrete thryoglobulin which is precursor to thyroid hormones

114
Q

what is a portal system

A

blood passes through two sets of smaller vessels before returning to the heart

115
Q

what do principal cells do

A
  • principal cells secrete thyroglobulin into colloids
  • transport iodide for iodination
  • produce T3 and T4 hormones through series of enzymatic reactions
116
Q

what are colloids

A

storage of large amounts of inactive hormone within extracellular components

117
Q

how is calcium regulated by C cells

A

C cells are parafolicular cells that regulate serum calcium levels by secreting calcitonin which inhibits osteoclast activity (cells that help bones develop)
- calcitonin release stimulated by high calcium levels and inhibited by low calcium

118
Q

what is the difference between T4 and T3 hormones

A

T4 is tetriodothryonine 90% of output
T3 is triiodothyronine
T3 is more biologically active
T4 converted to T3 in peripheral tissues by the enzyme deiodinase

119
Q

how does T3 regulate metabolism

A

promotes thermogenesis by increasing uncoupling proteins in mitochondria which generates heat instead of ATP

120
Q

how do T4 and T3 hormones provide feedback

A

provide negative feedback on hypothalamus and pituitary gland to regulate their own production

  • they inhibit TRH synthesis in hypothalamus and reduce TRH receptors in pituitary lowering TSH release
121
Q

what type of cells are found in parathyroid glands

A

chief cells

122
Q

what do chief cells produce

A

chief cells produce parathyroid hormone PTH

123
Q
A
124
Q

what does parathyroid hormone do

A

regulates calcium metabolism in the body
- when serum calcium levels drop PTH released stimulating osteoblasts to produce proteins like RANKL

-that promote the formation of osteclasts leading to bone degradation so calcium release

125
Q

how does the parathyroid gland sense calcium

A

chief cells have a calcium sensing receptor (G coupled protein receptor) that regulates PTH secretion based on serum calcium levels

126
Q

what are oxyphilic cells

A

large mitochondria rich cells are present in parathyroid
function unknown

127
Q

why are the adrenal glands known as mixed glands

A

have both endocrine and neuroendocrine glands

128
Q

what is the plexus

A

large capillary network which does down from cortex down to medulla where substances are released from

129
Q

what are the behavioural changes in response to adrenaline

A

increased awareness
improved cognition
euphoria
enhanced analgesia

130
Q

what are the physiological adaptations in response to adrenaline

A

increased cardiovascular tone
increased respiratory rate
increased intermediate metabolism
decreased vegetative functions

131
Q

what is the adrenal medulla comprised of

A

composed of parenchyma (functional part) of large pale staining epitheloid cells called chromaffin cells

132
Q

what are chromaffin cells

A

modified neurones
release catechloamines adrenaline and noradrenaline stimulated by nerve impluses
- chromaffin cells considered post synaptic neurones

133
Q

what are the three layers of the adrenal cortex

A
  • zona glomerulosa (outer)
  • zona fasciculta (middle)
  • zona reticularis (end)
134
Q

what does the zona glomerulosa secrete

A

aldosterone which regulates blood pressure

135
Q

what does the zona fasciculata secrete

A

glucocorticoids (cortisol)
which metabolises fats, proteins and carbs

136
Q

what does the zona reticularis secrete

A

androgen precursors like DHEA, androstenedione

137
Q

how does the hypothalamus communicate with the adrenal glands

A

through sympathetic preganglionic neurones
hypothalamus releases cortioctrophin releasing hormone which stimulates pituitary gland to release ACTH which binds to adrenal receptors

138
Q

why does the hypothalamus need to communicate with adrenal glands

A

faster for flight or fight response

139
Q

describe the structure of the pancreatic glands

A
  • acinar gland (sac like)
  • grouped into lobules
  • contain numerous zymogen granules
  • connect through numerous intercalated ducts (lined with cuboidal epithelial cells) to pancreatic ducts which joins with bile duct
140
Q

why is the pancreas unique in terms of glands

A

have both exocrine and endocrine glands

141
Q

what are the endocrine glands in the pancreas

A

islet of Langerhans

142
Q

what are the exocrine glands in the pancreas

A

acini

143
Q

what do alpha cells in the islets of langerhans release

A

glucagon

144
Q

what do beta cells in the islets of langerhans release

A

insulin

145
Q

what do delta cells in the islets of langerhans release

A

somatostatin

146
Q
A

Body log (8 decks)

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