GEP (Foundation Module) Week 1 Flashcards
Name the 3 main Bronchi and where they go to?
1)Main bronchi: Goes to the Lungs
2) Lobar Bronchi: Goes into the lung lobes
3) Segmental Bronchi: Goes into each segment in the lobes
What is the anatomical landmark called where the Trachea bifurcates?
The Carina
Identify and name all the lobes of the Lungs?
Right Lung
* Superior Lobe
* Middle Lobe
* Inferior Lobe
Left Lungs
* Superior lobe
* Inferior lobe
* Cardiac notch is present where the heart sits
What are the conducting and Respiratory Zone?
- Conducting zone is from 0-16
- Respiratory zone is 17-23
Air passes through the trachialbrochi tree to the Alveoli for gases exchange
What mucles are involved in inspiration?
- Scalene (elevates the first 2 ribs)
- Sternocledomastoid (raises sternum)
- Diaphrgm (contracts and moves downwards)
- Exeternal Intercostal (moves ribs forwards and outwards)
-All this enlarges the throax
What muslces are involved in Expiration?
- Internal Intercostal
- External Oblique
- Rectus Abdominis
- Internal Oblique
- Transversus Abdominis
- Diaphrgm
-All this helps reduce the throax volume
What is boyles Law?
Volume is inversely proportional to volume (meaning as the volume goes up, the pressure decreases, which helps with ventilation)
Inspiration: If you ↑ V, then you ↓ P.
Air moves from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure.
Therefore, air rushes in to balance the pressure.
Expiration: If you ↓ V, then you ↑ P.
As stated above, a pressure gradient is created.
Therefore, air rushes out.
What is the mixture of gas in air?
Nitrogen - ~ 78 %
Oxygen - ~ 21 %
CO2 - ~ 0.04 %
Others - ~ 0.96 %
What is diffusion?
process resulting from random motion of molecules by which there is a net flow of matter from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.
What are the 3 types of blood vessels?
- Veins (carries deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein)
- Arteries (carries oxygenated blood except pulmonary vein)
- Capillaries
What are the subunits of adult haemoglobin?
- 2 Alpha (Red)
- 2 Beta (Blue)
-Each subunit carries a heam group which carrues a Fe2+
What important factor apart from the heam group does heamoglobin have that affects pick up and release of O2?
2,3 DPG
What state is the haemoglobin when it is deoxygenated?
In a Tense State
What is positive cooperativity (linked to haemoglobin)?
This is where when one oxygen binds to a heam group, it makes the other slots easier to bind on to, as a result the affinity of oxygen increase as more oxygen binds.
How does oxygen and Co2 move in the lungs?
Oxygen diffuses into blood vessel and CO2 diffuses out of the vessel into the alveoli going down the concentration gradient .
What 3 ways is Co2 carried in the blood and the percentage of each method?
- 70% as bicarbonate
- 20% as carbaminohaemoglobin
- 10% in the blood plasma
What enzyme exists inside red blood Cells (RBCs) that speeds up the conversion of CO2 into bicarbonate?
Carbonic anhydrase is the enzyme which converts Co2 into bicarbonate, which is then moved out of the RBCs using the chloride shift.
What happens in gaseous exchange at respiring tissues?
- Co2 dissolves into the blood plasma from the respiring tissue.
- Co2 binds with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin.
- Co2 enters the RBC from the cells and reacts with H20 (water) and this reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase, producing carbonic acid. This then dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ion (H+).
-The cholride shift then occurs, this is when clorine moves into the RBC exchanging it for a bicarbonate molecule (HCo3-). - Oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) is then affected by the hydrogen ion produced by the dissociation of the carbonic acid. The affect that H+ ion has is that it attaches to the residue of the amino acid in haemoglobin, particularly the histidine residue. This helps regulate the PH of the blood and facilitates the release of oxygen, producing HHb (Deoxyhaemoglobin). Leading to oxygen moving into the cell.
What happens in gaseous exchange at the lungs?
- Co2 dissolved into the blood plasma moves out into the alveoli.
- Carbaminohaemoglobin splits into heamoglobin and CO2, then the CO2 diffuses out into the alveoli.
- Oxygen diffues into the RBC from the alveoli and binds with HHB (deoxyhaemoglobin) shifting the H+ ion and producing oxyhaemoglobin
- The chloride shift causes chloride ion to swap with a bicarbonate molecule in the RBC. This Bicarbonate then binds with the now free H+ ion producing carbonic acid. This carbonic acid is then broken down into water and CO2 by carbonic anhydrase. The CO2 then diffuses out into the alveoli.
What is the haldane effect?
This is when oxygen displaces CO2 from haemoglobin, increasing the removal of CO2. As a result oxygenated blood has a reduced affinity for CO2.
Moves oxygen dissociation curve to the left
What is the Bohr effect?
This is where Haemoglobins oxygen binding affinity is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of CO2
Moves oxygen dissociation curve to the right
What does having high oxygen affinity mean in terms of haemoglobin?
This means that haemoglobin is less likely to release oxygen
What does having low oxygen affinity mean in terms of haemoglobin?
This means that haemoglobin is more likely to release oxygen
What affects the oxygen dissociation curve?
- PH (hydrogen ions) (high H+ leads to low PH, moving oxygen dissociation curve to right).
- CO2 (high CO2 moves oxygen dissociation curve to right).
- 2,3 DPG (Increase in this causes oxygen dissociation curve to right).
- Exercise (Increase in this causes oxygen dissociation curve to right).
- Tempreture (Increase in this causes oxygen dissociation curve to right).
What is Aerobic respiration?
Glucose+ O2 –> ATP+CO2+H2O
ATP is Adenosine triphosphate
What is Glycolysis (Step 1 of aerobic respiration)?
- Glucose is first metabolised into 2 pyruvate molecules, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH (which is from 2 NAD+ being reduced with hydrogen, causing NADH to carry 2 electrons)
* This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and does not require oxygen
* NAD stands for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.
What is the link reaction (Step 2 of aerobic respiration)?
- The 2 pyruvate molecule yeilds 2 acetyl-CoA,
- 2 CO2 molecules
- 2 NADH (2 NAD+ becomes NADH, carrying 2 electrons).
Oxygen is required and this reaction occurs in the matrix.
What is the Kreb Cycle (3rd step of aerobic respiration)?
Each of the two acetyl-CoA molecule enters a seperate kreb cycle.
1. GTP (ATP) x 2
2. (NADH x3) x 2
3. (FADH2) x 2
4. (CO2 x2) x 2
This takes place in the matrix of the cell and requires oxygen.
What is the Electron transport chain reaction (4th step of aerobic respiration)?
- NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the the enzyme complexs, the electron passes along the chain of enzymes.
- After NADH and FADH2 donate the electron, you are left with a proton (H+), this proton passes through the enzymes into the intermembrane space.
- This creates an electrochemical gradient (electro = positive charge, and chemical = concentration of protons).
- The protons pass through a complex called ATP synthase (down their electrochemical gradient) and end up back in the matrix.
As the protons move through ATP synthase, it turns in a circle. As it turns in a circle, it phosphorylates ADP to make ATP. - The electrons that have moved down the ETC are donated to oxygen in the matrix. In addition, two of the protons that have travelled back into the matrix combine with the oxygen. This results in the production of H2O.
This happens along the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
How many ATP molecules are produced from one glucose molecule?
32
What happens with anaerobic respiraration?
- This takes place in the cytoplasm
- glycolysis occurs produing: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
- Then the 2 pyruvate is fermentated into 2 ATP, at the same time 2 NADH is oxidised back into 2 NAD+ which is used for glycolosis.
What technique is used to treat when someone has CO poisoning?
- 4 hours on room air.
- 40 minutes on high flow oxygen .
- 20 minutes in a hyperbaric chamber.
CO has 300x affinity for haemoglobin compared to oxygen.
What is respiratory acidosis, alkalosis?
- Respiratory acidosis is where you have low PH due to an increase in CO2 and H+ levels with no changes in bicarbonate.
- Respiratory alkalosis is where you have a high PH due to a decrease in CO2 and H+ levels with no changes in bicarbonate.
What is metabolic acidosis and alkalosis?
- Metabolic acidosis is where you have a low PH due to low bicarbonate level and an increase in H+ levels, the CO2 levels are normal.
- Metabolic alkalosis is where you have a high PH due to a high bicarbonate level and low H+ , the CO2 levels are normal.
What does efferent and afferent mean in terms of the nervous system?
- Afferent means to arrive
- Efferent means to exit
What does the Nervous system split into?
- Central nervous system
- Peripheral nervous system.
What does the central nervous system split into?
- Brain
- Spinal cord
What does the peripheral nervous system split into?
- Motor Neurons ( CNS to muslces and glands)
- Sensory Neurons (Sensory organs to CNS)
What does the PNS consist off?
- Somatic nervous system (controls voluntary movements)
- Automatic nervous system (controls involuntary responses)
What does the autonomic nervous system split into?
- Sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)
- Parasympathetic system (rest and digest)
How is an electric impulses sent via the nervous system?
- Nerve cells have a resting membrane potential of -70 in the brain. To stimulate these cells the threshold must reach -55 and once this threshold is reached there is a large release of sodium which starts an action potential.
- This then needs to be recovered so a gate opens on the membrane of the cell allowing potassium to rapidly flood out of the cell, whichreduces the polarity of the cellto below the threshold once more.
What are the different types of nervous cells and their fuctions?
- Microglia: Immune cells of the brain, these may be hyperacivated in condition like alzhimers.
- Astrocytes: Controls level of neurotrasmitters by modifying the synapses
- Oligondendrocytes: Support the porduction of myelin which insulates the nerves and speeds up neural transmission.
- Ependymal cells: Makes CSF
- Glia cells: Progenitors of other CNS cells
- Satellite cells: Regulates chemical around the Peripheral nervous system neurones.
- Schwann cells: Similar to oligondendrocytes.
