GEP (Foundation Module) Week 1

Question 1

Name the 3 main Bronchi and where they go to?

Answer 1

1)Main bronchi: Goes to the Lungs
2) Lobar Bronchi: Goes into the lung lobes
3) Segmental Bronchi: Goes into each segment in the lobes

Question 2

What is the anatomical landmark called where the Trachea bifurcates?

Answer 2

The Carina

Question 3

Identify and name all the lobes of the Lungs?

Answer 3

Right Lung
* Superior Lobe
* Middle Lobe
* Inferior Lobe
Left Lungs
* Superior lobe
* Inferior lobe
* Cardiac notch is present where the heart sits

Question 4

What are the conducting and Respiratory Zone?

Answer 4

• Conducting zone is from 0-16
• Respiratory zone is 17-23

Air passes through the trachialbrochi tree to the Alveoli for gases exchange

Question 5

What mucles are involved in inspiration?

Answer 5

• Scalene (elevates the first 2 ribs)
• Sternocledomastoid (raises sternum)
• Diaphrgm (contracts and moves downwards)
• Exeternal Intercostal (moves ribs forwards and outwards)
  -All this enlarges the throax

Question 6

What muslces are involved in Expiration?

Answer 6

• Internal Intercostal
• External Oblique
• Rectus Abdominis
• Internal Oblique
• Transversus Abdominis
• Diaphrgm
  -All this helps reduce the throax volume

Question 7

What is boyles Law?

Answer 7

Volume is inversely proportional to volume (meaning as the volume goes up, the pressure decreases, which helps with ventilation)

Inspiration: If you ↑ V, then you ↓ P.
Air moves from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure.
Therefore, air rushes in to balance the pressure.

Expiration: If you ↓ V, then you ↑ P.
As stated above, a pressure gradient is created.
Therefore, air rushes out.

Question 8

What is the mixture of gas in air?

Answer 8

Nitrogen - ~ 78 %
Oxygen - ~ 21 %
CO2 - ~ 0.04 %
Others - ~ 0.96 %

Question 9

What is diffusion?

Answer 9

process resulting from random motion of molecules by which there is a net flow of matter from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.

Question 10

What are the 3 types of blood vessels?

Answer 10

• Veins (carries deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein)
• Arteries (carries oxygenated blood except pulmonary vein)
• Capillaries

Question 11

What are the subunits of adult haemoglobin?

Answer 11

• 2 Alpha (Red)
• 2 Beta (Blue)
  -Each subunit carries a heam group which carrues a Fe2+

Question 12

What important factor apart from the heam group does heamoglobin have that affects pick up and release of O2?

Answer 12

2,3 DPG

Question 13

What state is the haemoglobin when it is deoxygenated?

Answer 13

In a Tense State

Question 14

What is positive cooperativity (linked to haemoglobin)?

Answer 14

This is where when one oxygen binds to a heam group, it makes the other slots easier to bind on to, as a result the affinity of oxygen increase as more oxygen binds.

Question 15

How does oxygen and Co2 move in the lungs?

Answer 15

Oxygen diffuses into blood vessel and CO2 diffuses out of the vessel into the alveoli going down the concentration gradient .

Question 16

What 3 ways is Co2 carried in the blood and the percentage of each method?

Answer 16

• 70% as bicarbonate
• 20% as carbaminohaemoglobin
• 10% in the blood plasma

Question 17

What enzyme exists inside red blood Cells (RBCs) that speeds up the conversion of CO2 into bicarbonate?

Answer 17

Carbonic anhydrase is the enzyme which converts Co2 into bicarbonate, which is then moved out of the RBCs using the chloride shift.

Question 18

What happens in gaseous exchange at respiring tissues?

Answer 18

• Co2 dissolves into the blood plasma from the respiring tissue.
• Co2 binds with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin.
• Co2 enters the RBC from the cells and reacts with H20 (water) and this reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase, producing carbonic acid. This then dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ion (H+).
  -The cholride shift then occurs, this is when clorine moves into the RBC exchanging it for a bicarbonate molecule (HCo3-).
• Oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) is then affected by the hydrogen ion produced by the dissociation of the carbonic acid. The affect that H+ ion has is that it attaches to the residue of the amino acid in haemoglobin, particularly the histidine residue. This helps regulate the PH of the blood and facilitates the release of oxygen, producing HHb (Deoxyhaemoglobin). Leading to oxygen moving into the cell.

Question 19

What happens in gaseous exchange at the lungs?

Answer 19

• Co2 dissolved into the blood plasma moves out into the alveoli.
• Carbaminohaemoglobin splits into heamoglobin and CO2, then the CO2 diffuses out into the alveoli.
• Oxygen diffues into the RBC from the alveoli and binds with HHB (deoxyhaemoglobin) shifting the H+ ion and producing oxyhaemoglobin
• The chloride shift causes chloride ion to swap with a bicarbonate molecule in the RBC. This Bicarbonate then binds with the now free H+ ion producing carbonic acid. This carbonic acid is then broken down into water and CO2 by carbonic anhydrase. The CO2 then diffuses out into the alveoli.

Question 20

What is the haldane effect?

Answer 20

This is when oxygen displaces CO2 from haemoglobin, increasing the removal of CO2. As a result oxygenated blood has a reduced affinity for CO2.

Moves oxygen dissociation curve to the left

Question 21

What is the Bohr effect?

Answer 21

This is where Haemoglobins oxygen binding affinity is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of CO2

Moves oxygen dissociation curve to the right

Question 22

What does having high oxygen affinity mean in terms of haemoglobin?

Answer 22

This means that haemoglobin is less likely to release oxygen

Question 23

What does having low oxygen affinity mean in terms of haemoglobin?

Answer 23

This means that haemoglobin is more likely to release oxygen

Question 24

What affects the oxygen dissociation curve?

Answer 24

• PH (hydrogen ions) (high H+ leads to low PH, moving oxygen dissociation curve to right).
• CO2 (high CO2 moves oxygen dissociation curve to right).
• 2,3 DPG (Increase in this causes oxygen dissociation curve to right).
• Exercise (Increase in this causes oxygen dissociation curve to right).
• Tempreture (Increase in this causes oxygen dissociation curve to right).

Question 25

What is Aerobic respiration?

Answer 25

Glucose+ O2 --> ATP+CO2+H2O | ATP is Adenosine triphosphate

Question 26

What is Glycolysis (Step 1 of aerobic respiration)?

Answer 26

1. Glucose is first metabolised into 2 pyruvate molecules, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH (which is from 2 NAD+ being reduced with hydrogen, causing NADH to carry 2 electrons) * This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and does not require oxygen * NAD stands for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.

Question 27

What is the link reaction (Step 2 of aerobic respiration)?

Answer 27

1. The 2 pyruvate molecule yeilds 2 acetyl-CoA, 2. 2 CO2 molecules 3. 2 NADH (2 NAD+ becomes NADH, carrying 2 electrons). | Oxygen is required and this reaction occurs in the matrix.

Question 28

What is the Kreb Cycle (3rd step of aerobic respiration)?

Answer 28

Each of the two acetyl-CoA molecule enters a seperate kreb cycle. 1. GTP (ATP) x 2 2. (NADH x3) x 2 3. (FADH2) x 2 4. (CO2 x2) x 2 | This takes place in the matrix of the cell and requires oxygen.

Question 29

What is the Electron transport chain reaction (4th step of aerobic respiration)?

Answer 29

1. NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the the enzyme complexs, the electron passes along the chain of enzymes. 2. After NADH and FADH2 donate the electron, you are left with a proton (H+), this proton passes through the enzymes into the intermembrane space. 3. This creates an electrochemical gradient (electro = positive charge, and chemical = concentration of protons). 4. The protons pass through a complex called ATP synthase (down their electrochemical gradient) and end up back in the matrix. As the protons move through ATP synthase, it turns in a circle. As it turns in a circle, it phosphorylates ADP to make ATP. 5. The electrons that have moved down the ETC are donated to oxygen in the matrix. In addition, two of the protons that have travelled back into the matrix combine with the oxygen. This results in the production of H2O. | This happens along the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

Question 30

How many ATP molecules are produced from one glucose molecule?

Answer 30

32

Question 31

What happens with anaerobic respiraration?

Answer 31

1. This takes place in the cytoplasm 2. glycolysis occurs produing: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2 NADH. 3. Then the 2 pyruvate is fermentated into 2 ATP, at the same time 2 NADH is oxidised back into 2 NAD+ which is used for glycolosis.

Question 32

What technique is used to treat when someone has CO poisoning?

Answer 32

1. 4 hours on room air. 2. 40 minutes on high flow oxygen . 3. 20 minutes in a hyperbaric chamber. | CO has 300x affinity for haemoglobin compared to oxygen.

Question 33

What is respiratory acidosis, alkalosis?

Answer 33

* Respiratory acidosis is where you have low PH due to an increase in CO2 and H+ levels with no changes in bicarbonate. * Respiratory alkalosis is where you have a high PH due to a decrease in CO2 and H+ levels with no changes in bicarbonate.

Question 34

What is metabolic acidosis and alkalosis?

Answer 34

* Metabolic acidosis is where you have a low PH due to low bicarbonate level and an increase in H+ levels, the CO2 levels are normal. * Metabolic alkalosis is where you have a high PH due to a high bicarbonate level and low H+ , the CO2 levels are normal.

Question 35

What does efferent and afferent mean in terms of the nervous system?

Answer 35

* Afferent means to arrive * Efferent means to exit

Question 36

What does the Nervous system split into?

Answer 36

1. Central nervous system 2. Peripheral nervous system.

Question 37

What does the central nervous system split into?

Answer 37

1. Brain 2. Spinal cord

Question 38

What does the peripheral nervous system split into?

Answer 38

1. Motor Neurons ( CNS to muslces and glands) 2. Sensory Neurons (Sensory organs to CNS)

Question 39

What does the PNS consist off?

Answer 39

* Somatic nervous system (controls voluntary movements) * Automatic nervous system (controls involuntary responses)

Question 40

What does the autonomic nervous system split into?

Answer 40

* Sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) * Parasympathetic system (rest and digest)

Question 41

How is an electric impulses sent via the nervous system?

Answer 41

1. Nerve cells have a resting membrane potential of -70 in the brain. To stimulate these cells the threshold must reach -55 and once this threshold is reached there is a large release of sodium which starts an action potential. 2. This then needs to be recovered so a gate opens on the membrane of the cell allowing potassium to rapidly flood out of the cell, which reduces the polarity of the cell to below the threshold once more.

Question 42

What are the different types of nervous cells and their fuctions?

Answer 42

1. Microglia: Immune cells of the brain, these may be hyperacivated in condition like alzhimers. 2. Astrocytes: Controls level of neurotrasmitters by modifying the synapses 3. Oligondendrocytes: Support the porduction of myelin which insulates the nerves and speeds up neural transmission. 4. Ependymal cells: Makes CSF 5. Glia cells: Progenitors of other CNS cells 6. Satellite cells: Regulates chemical around the Peripheral nervous system neurones. 7. Schwann cells: Similar to oligondendrocytes.