Geology (Quiz) Flashcards
is the line that marks the contact between land and sea.
Shoreline
refers specifically to the land along the edge of a body of water
Shore
refers to a larger geographical region that includes the shore as well as the adjacent land areas
Coast
an accumulation of sediment found along the landward margin of a water body.
beach
due to skeletons or shells of foraminiferas (single-celled marine organisms), corals and other organisms.
White sand
result of eroded volcanic materials such basalts (dark-colored volcanic rocks)
Black sand
originally white-colored sand beach, turned pinkish ever since washed-up red-colored corals spread all over the shore
Pink sand
huge andesite boulders were produced by Mt. Iraya volcano and these boulders were broken down, polished and rounded by strong waves in Batanes
Boulder beach
Refers to the specific interface or line where land and water meet
Shoreline
Has features, including rocky cliffs, sandy beaches, or marshy shores. Are subject to erosion and other natural processes
Coastline
also known simply as a cliff or a coastal cliff, is a geological feature formed by the erosion of waves against a coastline
Wave-cut Cliff
A narrow indentation or cutout in the coastline
Notch
refers to a nearly horizontal or gently sloping strip of land or sand found along the backshore of a beach
Berm
Part of the shore exposed at low tide and submerged at high tide
Foreshore
Extends from the shoreline to where waves break (surf zone) at the outer edge of the surf zone
Nearshore
Area beyond the nearshore zone. Associated with activities such as oil drilling, fishing, and shipping
Offshore
refers to the movement of water rushing up the beach after a wave breaks, carrying sediment and debris landward
Swash
is the flow of water back down the beach after the swash
Backwash
The uprush of water from each breaking wave (the swash) is at an oblique angle to the shoreline
Beach drift
Waves that approach the shore at an angle also produce currents within the surf zone that flow parallel to the shore and move substantially more sediment than beach drift.
Longshore Current
Are concentrated movements of water that flow opposite the direction of breaking waves.
Rip Current, rip tides
Most of the backwash from spent waves finds its way back to the open ocean as an unconfined flow across the ocean bottom
sheet flow
Erosional features
Wave-cut cliffs
Wave-cut platforms
Marine terraces
Sea arches
Sea stacks
A gently sloping, flat, or slightly inclined surface of rock that extends from the base of a wave-cut cliff out into the sea
Wave-cut platforms
Relatively flat or gently sloping landforms that parallel the coastline and are typically found above present-day sea level
Marine terraces
Is a natural rock arch formed by the erosive action of waves on coastal rock formations
Sea arches
A vertical column or pillar of rock that stands isolated from the coastline, often adjacent to cliffs or headlands
Sea stacks
Depositional features
Spits
Bars (Baymouth Bar)
Tombolos
Is an elongated ridge of sand that projects from the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay
Spits
is applied to a sandbar that completely crosses a bay, sealing it off from the open ocean.
baymouth bar
a body of water partially enclosed by land, usually with a wide mouth opening to the sea or another larger body of water, such as a lake or another bay.
Bay
A ridge of sand that connects an island to the mainland or to another island, forms in much the same manner as a spit
Tombolos
` Hurricane (North Atlantic Ocean and Northeastern Pacific Ocean)
` Cyclone (South Pacific and Indian Ocean)
` Typhoon (Northwestern Pacific Ocean)
is a dome of water 65 to 80 kilometers (40 to 50 miles) wide that sweeps across the coast near the point where the eye makes landfall
storm surge
Made landfall on November 8, 2013
Guian, Eastern Samar
Super Typhoon Yolanda
Hard stabilization
Jetties
Groins
Breakwaters and seawalls
Alternatives to hard stabilization
Beach nourishment
Changing land use
Structures built to protect a coast from erosion or to prevent the movement of sand along a beach
hard stabilization.
Structures typically built from a shoreline out into a body of water, often the sea or a river, to direct currents and prevent sediment deposition. They’re also used for docking boats or ships
Jetties
Jetties hep to:
Stabilize the shorelines
Manage sediment transport
Provide safe harbors for maritime activities
s a barrier built at a right angle to the beach to trap sand that moves parallel to the shore. usually constructed of large rocks but may also be composed of wood.
Groins
which protects boats from the force of large breaking waves by creating a quiet water zone near the shoreline
breakwater
a specifically designed harbor with facilities for mooring boats and yachts, often offering services such as fueling, repairs, and amenities for boaters and visitors.
Marina
the action of using such a tool or machine to remove material from the bottom of a body of water
Dredge
which is designed to armor the coas and defend property from the force of breaking waves
Seawalls
One approach to stabilizing shoreline sands without hard stabilization is
beach nourishment
his practice involves adding large quantities of sand to the beach system
beach nourishment
Earth’s different spheres
hydrosphere
atmosphere
geosphere
biosphere
unending circulation of water
hydrologic cycle.
the only planet in the solar system that has a global ocean and a hydrologic cycle.
earth
water content of the hydrosphere is an estimated
1.36 billion cubic kilometers (326 million cubic miles).
is a vast body of
saltwater that covers a
significant portion of Earth’s
surface
OCEANS
are vast bodies of
water that surround
continents,
OCEANS
generally smaller and partially
enclosed by land
seas
SEAS IN THE PHILIPPINES
▪ South China Sea
▪ Philippine Sea
▪ Bohol Sea
▪ Sibuyan Sea
▪ Camotes Sea
▪ Visayan Sea
▪ Samar Sea
▪ Celebes Sea
▪ Sulu Sea
are bodies of water
that have a high concentration of
dissolved salts, typically much
higher than freshwater lakes but
lower than seawater
saline lakse
refers to the presence
of salt, usually in the form of sodium
chloride (table salt), although other salts
such as magnesium, calcium, and
potassium salts can also contribute to
salinity.
“saline”
Also known as the “salt
sea”
Dead Sea
Its waters are mainly drawn
from the Jordan River, and
the high salinity means no
life can survive here (hence the “Dead” in its name)
Dead Sea
It’s technically not a sea at
all, but a landlocked salt
lake between Jordan and
Israel.
Dead Sea
is a large, persistent body of ice
that forms over many years as snow
accumulates and compresses into dense
ice.
glacier
are found in polar regions, high mountain
ranges, and some subpolar regions around the world.
Glaciers
are massive expanses of ice that
cover large areas of land, primarily in polar
regions.
ICE SHEETS
refers to water that is located beneath the
Earth’s surface in soil pore spaces, fractures, rock layers, or other geological formations.
GROUNDWATER
is a natural flowing watercourse that moves water
from higher elevations to lower elevations, typically
draining into a larger body of water such as an ocean, sea,
lake, or another river.
RIVERS
the longest river in the world
located in NE Africa
Nile River
has a total length of
approximately 6,650
kilometers (4,130 miles),
making it the longest river
globally based on traditional
definitions that measure from
the source to the mouth.
Nile River
➢Found in South America
➢Generally considered the largest
river in the world by volume of
water discharged and by
drainage area.
Amazon River
➢It carries more water than any
other river, contributing about
20% of the total river flow into
the world’s oceans.
Amazon River
Rio Grande de Cagayan
Longest river in the Philippines
(505 km long)
Cagayan River
It originates in the Caraballo
Mountains and flows through
several provinces, including
Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino, Isabela
and Cagayan.
Cagayan River
A type of wetland characterized by saturated muddy, and
often partially submerged land.
SWAMP
Are typically found in low-lying areas, along riverbanks,
and in coastal regions.
SWAMP
➢Refers to amount of water present in the
soil, including both liquid and vapor
phases.
SOIL MOISTURE
➢A lake that contains water with low salinity or salt
content, typically less than 0.5 parts per thousand
(ppt)
LAKE (Freshwater)
➢ Siberia, Russia
is the deepest (1.6 km) and oldest freshwater lake in the world.
Lake Baikal
it holds about 20% of the world’s unfrozen freshwater, making
it the largest freshwater lake by volume.
Lake Baikal
Pinatubo crater lake
a body of water formed within the caldera of Mt. Pinatubo.
caldera was created during the cataclysmic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo
June 15, 1991
➢Found in Luzon
➢Largest
freshwater lake
in the Philippines
in terms of
surface area
(900 km2
)
Laguna de Bay
➢collectively hold a significant
portion of the Earth’s freshwater
reserves.
SNOW AND ICE
the process
by which liquid water
changes into water
vapor (gas), is how water
enters the atmosphere
from the ocean and, to a
much lesser extent, from
the continents.
Evaporation,
A portion of the water soaks
into the ground
infiltration
surplus water flows over
the surface into lakes and
streams,
runoff
some of the water
that soaks into the ground
is absorbed by plants,
which then release it into
the atmosphere.
transpiration.
passes through
each part of the cycle
annually.
water
balance, or the volume of
water
The amount of water that runs off compared
to the amount that infiltrates depends on
several factors:
(1) the intensity and duration of rainfall
(2) the amount of water already in the soil
(3) the nature of the surface material
(4) the slope of the land
(5) the extent and type of vegetation
is a type of water flow that
occurs when water moves evenly over a surface in a thin, continuous layer
Sheet flow
it is characterized by a relatively uniform distribution of water across a surface, often resembling a “sheet” of water flowing in a broad, shallow manner
Sheet flow
sheet flows eventually develops threads of current that form tiny channels
rills
are small channels or grooves that form on the surface of soil or loose sediment due to the erosion caused by flowing water
rills
mm to cm
rills
rills meet to form
gullies
are larger and deeper channels than rills, characterized by more significant erosion and excavation of the soil or substrate
gullies
cm to m
gullies
when gullies reach an undefined size they area called
rivers
water that flows in a channel, regardless of size
streams
a general term for streams that carry susbtantial amounts of water and have numeous tributaries
rivers
refers to a smaller river or stream that flows into a larger river, lake, or another body of water
tributary
every stream drains an area of land
drainage basin or watershed
each drainage basin is bounded by an imaginary line
divide
includes not only its network of stream channels but its entire drainage basin
river system
it can be divided into three zones based on the process that dominates in each:
three zones in a river system:
- zone of sediment production
- zone of sediment transport
- zone of sediment deposition
the zone of sediment production, where most of the sediment is derived, is located in the ___ region of the river system
headwaters
downstream from the zone of sediment production sediment acquired by a stream is transported through the channel network along sections
trunk streams
when a river approaches the ocean or another large body of water,
it slows, and then energy to transport sediment is greatly reduces
most of the sediments either accumulate at the mouth of the river to form a ___, are reconfigured by wave action to form a variety of coastal features, or are moved far offshore
delta
which are interconnected networks of streams, can exhibit a variety of patterns.
drainage systems
the pattern that develops depends primarily on the kind of rock present and/or the structural pattern of joints, faults, and folds
drainage pattern
types of drainage patterns
- dendritic pattern
- radial pattern
- rectangular pattern
- trellis pattern
it is the most common drainage pattern
dendritic pattern
it resembles the branching pattern of a deciduous tree
dendritic pattern
treelike
dendritic
when streams diverge from a central area like spokes from the hub of a wheel
radial pattern
this pattern typically develops on isolated volcanic cones and domal uplifts
radial pattern
this pattern develops when the bedrock is crisscrossed by a series of joints and/or faults
rectangular pattern
is a rectangular drainage pattern in which tributary streams are nearly parallel to one another and have the appearance of a garden trellis
trellis pattern
this pattern forms in areas underlain by alternating bands of resistant and less-resistant rock and is particularly well displayed in the folded Appalachian Mountains, where both weak and strong strata outcrop in nearly parallel belts
trellis pattern
occur where a stream cuts across ridges of resistant rock
water gaps
two types of streamflow
- laminar flow
- turbulent flow
water moves in nearly straight-line paths parallel to the stream channel
laminar flow
movement of water is characterized by irregular and fluctuating motions
turbulent flow
factor affecting flow velocity
- channel slope or gradient
- channel cross-sectional shape
- channel size and roughness
- discharge
the slope of a stream channel, expressed as the vertical drop of a stream over a specified distance
gradient
when the gradient is steeper, more gravitational energy is available to drive channel flow
channel slope or gradient
the most efficient channel is one whit the least wetted perimeter for its cross-sectional area
channel cross-sectional shape
all other factors being equal, flow velocities are higher in large channels than in small channels
channel size and roughness
elements such as boulders, irregularities in the channel bed, and woody debris create turbulence that significantly reduces flow velocity
channel size and roughness
the size of a stream channel is largely determined by the amount of water supplied from the drainage basin
discharges
used to compare the size of streams. usually measured in cubic meters per second or cubic feet per second
discharge
streams cut channels into bedrock through three main processes:
- quarrying
- abrasion
- corrosion
involves the removal of blocks from the bed of a stream channel
quarrying
the process by which the bed and banks of a bedrock channel are ceaselessly bombarded by particles carried into the flow
abrasion
a process in which rock is gradually dissolved by the flowing water
corrosion
circular depressions which are created by the abrasive action of particles moving in fast-moving eddies
potholes
streams transport their load of sediment in three ways:
- in solution (dissolved load)
- in suspension (suspended load)
- by sliding, skipping, or rolling along the bottom (bed load)
occurs whenever a stream slows, causing a reduction in competence
deposition
the maximum load of solid particles a stream can transport per unit time
capacity
it is a measure of a stream’s ability to transport particles based on size rather than quantity
competence
It refers to the speed at which water moves within a river.
Flow velocity
Pertains to the speed at which sediment particles, once suspended in water, settle to the riverbed due to gravity.
Settling velocity
consists of a channel and the surrounding terrain that directs water to the stream
Stream valley
It includes the valley floor, which is the lower, flatter area that is partially or totally occupied by the stream channel, and the sloping valley walls that rise above the valley floor on both sides
Stream valley
a flat or nearly flat land adjacent to a stream or river that experiences periodic flooding
floodplains
are natural features of river systems and are formed by the deposition of sediment carried by the river during floods
floodplains
is the bottom surface of a river channel, where the water flows
River Bed
refers to the sides of the river channel, the area that contains the water within its boundaries
River Bank
formed through erosional processes, typically in mountainous or upland areas where rivers cut down through resistant rock layers
V-shaped Valleys
have steep sides and a narrow channel at the bottom, often found in regions with active tectonics or glaciation
V-shaped Valleys
these valleys are also commonly found in mountainous regions, particularly those affected by glaciation
U-shaped Valleys
are wider and more gently sloping than V-shaped valleys, with a characteristic U-shaped cross-section resulting from the erosive action of glaciers
U-shaped Valleys
are found underwater and are formed by processes such as erosion by submarine currents or the collapse of underwater slopes
Submarine Valleys
is a natural phenomenon where a river or stream flows over a vertical drop or a series of steep steps in its course
Waterfalls
are formed through erosional processes as water erodes the underlying rock layers, typically resulting in the creation of cascades, plunges, or horsetails.
Waterfalls
characterized by water flowing over a series of rock steps or ledges, creating a stepped or tiered appearance
Cascade
a vertical drop where water falls freely without making contact with the underlying rock surface
Plunges
water maintaining contact with the underlying rock surface as it cascades down, creating a broad, fan-like shape
Horsetail
are often formed in areas where a river encounters a sudden change in elevation, such as a cliff or a resistant rock layer
Waterfalls
is the world’s tallest waterfall, with a total height of 979 meters (3,212 feet).
can be found in Venezuela
Angel Falls
is the highest waterfalls in the Philippines with more than 130 cascading waterfalls and a stair-like boulder formation.
Cateel, Davao Oriental, Mindanao
Aliwagwag Falls
are part of the natural behavior of a stream and occur when the flow of a stream becomes so great that it exceeds the capacity channel and overflows its banks
floods
refer to floods that occur over a larger geographical area, such as a region or multiple regions, rather than being confined to a single river basin or locality.
Regional Floods
These floods are typically triggered by significant weather events, such as heavy rainfall, snowmelt, tropical storms, or hurricanes, which affect a broad area.
Regional Floods
a rapid and intense flooding event that occurs within a short period, typically within six hours of heavy rainfall, a dam or levee failure, or sudden snowmelt
flash floods
They are characterized by a swift rise in water levels, powerful currents, and the potential to cause significant damage to infrastructure and endanger lives
flash floods
occur when a dam, which is a barrier constructed to hold back water and create a reservoir, fails to contain the water it’s designed to control
dam-failure floods
are earthen mounds built on river banks to increase the volume of water the channel can hold
artificial levees
are embankments or barriers built along riverbanks or coastlines to prevent flooding by confining water within a certain area
levees
This may simply involve clearing a channel of obstructions or dredging a channel to make it wider and deeper
channelization
Involves the physical breakdown (disintegration) and chemical alteration (decomposition) of rock at or near Earth’s surface
Weathering
basic part of the rock cycle and thus a key process in the Earth’s system
Weathering
accomplished by physical forces that break rock into smaller and smaller pieces without changing that rock’s mineral composition
Mechanical Weathering
Involves the complex processes that alter the internal structures of minerals by removing and/or adding elements
Chemical Weathering
most important agents of chemical weathering
water
key process in the formation of soil
weathering
one of our most indispensable resources
soil
layer of rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering
regolith
combination of mineral and organic matter, water, and air – the portion of the regolith that supports the growth of plants
soil
one-half of the total volume of good-quality surface soil:
Mixture of disintegrated and decomposed rock (mineral matter)
Humus, the decayed remains of animal and plant life (organic matter)
the decayed remains of animal and plant life (organic matter)
humus
These vertical differences, which usually become more pronounced as time passes divide the soil into zones or layers
horizons
vertical section through all of the soil horizons constitutes the _____
soil profile
The Impact of Human Activities on Soil
Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest: A Case Study of Human Impact on Soil
Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest: A Case Study of Human Impact on Soil
Controlling Soil Erosion
an important factor in soil erosion
Steepness of slope
Implies a sudden event in which large quantities of rock and soil plunge down steep slopes
landslides
spectacular examples of a basic geologic process
landslides
refers to the downslope movement of rock, regolith, and soil under the direct influence of gravity
Mass movement
Controls and Triggers of Mass Movements
- The role of water
- Oversteepened slopes
- Removal of vegetation
- Earthquakes as triggers
Installing rock bolts to reinforce unstable rock masses
rock bolting
specifically for stabilizing soil slopes, involving installing steel bars (nails) into the slope
Soil Nailing
