geography_20240525133748 Flashcards

Question

Localism

Answer 1

an affection for or emotional ownership of a particular place.

Answer 2

- People have a stronger relationship with the places they are familiar with-This is the main reason why people living within a place are more likely to oppose developments within their local area than those from outside- NIMBYISM -local newspapers, playing sport for a local team all foster a sense of local place - historically, have identified more with their local place or community (as less travel)

Answer 3

consciousness of, and loyalty to, a distinct region with a population that shares similarities Examples - In Cornwall, the Mebyon Kernow party has been leading the campaign for a National Assembly for Cornwall - because Cornwall has it own distinct identity- language- and heritage - has the same right to self-rule as other parts of the UK (like Scotland and Wales)

Answer 4

loyalty and devotion to a nation, which creates a sense of national consciousness. Patriotism could be considered as an example of a sense of place.

Answer 5

At a national level many people identify with place through: ● a common language ● a national anthem ● a flag ● cultural and sporting events. A resurgence in the Welsh language and culture has highlighted a stronger national identity among the Welsh in recent years.

Answer 6

The economic and social geographer Doreen Massey wrote about a global sense of place, in which she questioned the idea that places are static. She argued instead that places are dynamic, they have multiple identities and they do not have to have boundaries. Massey argued that the character of a place can only be seen and understood by linking that place to places beyond. She concluded, ‘What we need, it seems to me, is a global sense of the local, a global sense of place.’

Answer 7

- globalisation has made place homogenised (shown by increase of global chains) -'geography of nowhere James Kunstler - clone towns (4/10 in the UK) - placelessness (the idea that a place could be anywhere and lacks uniqueness) - occurs when global forces have greater influence on shaping place than local factors.

Answer 8

One particular response to globalisation has been a greater focus on ‘local’ place and the promotion of local goods and services.

Answer 9

- 2012, Costa tried to come to Totnes - within weeks of the proposal , 3/4s of the population had signed a petition that they would boycott it (prevent it becoming a clone town). Costa dropped plans after 8 month battle. Did not want Totnes to become a clone town (8/10 shops are independent. - Totnes in South Devon created a local currency in 2007 (ended in 2019)

Answer 10

- The Bristol Pound was launched in 2012 . In 2020, trying to launch an e wallet (limited success and development)

Answer 11

 Religion, too, can be used to foster a sense of identity in place  At a local level, churches, mosques and synagogues are places where people from the same religious identity come together to worship. There may also be larger sacred places such as Bethlehem or Mecca where people go on pilgrimages.

Answer 12

 Changes in the nature of places- be they social, enviro or economic- affect people and their identity  football fans after their national team losing a match  if a major employer or injury fails, those made redundant will miss the social interactions associated with the locale of the factory or office and must re-evaluate their role in society

Answer 13

announced the closure of Redcar Steelworks in NE England with a loss of 1700 job

Answer 14

Announced its intention to sell its entire UK business- this would result in the loss of a further 1200 jobs in the north east and 4000 at Port Talbot in South Wales

Answer 15

result in community members increased awareness of themselves as people living in a particular place

Answer 16

-Greater consciousness of and loyalty to a place (localism, regionalism, nationalism, patriotism, eve pro-Europeanism) may lead to some form of activism

Answer 17

2011, Tahrir Square in Cairo was the focal point of the Egyptian revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak. Despite the banning of public protests in Egypt, the square became a symbol for the pursuit of democracy in Egypt.

Answer 18

* To belong is to be part of a community. * The extent to which one might feel a sense of belonging can be influenced by factors like age, gender, ethnicity, race, socio-economic status, religion, and level of education.

Answer 19

* Belonging is increasingly seen as one of the key factors that makes a place sustainable and successful. * Regeneration schemes now often focus as much on the social environment as on the built environment and the work of different agencies and individuals can have a positive impact on people’s lived experience of the place in which they live

Answer 20

Migration has increased making places more ethnically and culturally diverse- e.g. London (largest Chinese New Year Festival outside China and other festivals). In spite of its multicultural status, there are still minority ethnic clusters in parts of London, including Chinatown in Soho and Banglatown in and around Brick Lane. These have tended to develop, with dedicated shops and services, for mutual support and cultural preservation.- may not feel belonging? or helps them feel belonging?

Answer 21

places emphasises community involvement and has developed a clearer sense of belonging in places all over the world. Founded in 2007- in response to climate change and peak oil, now responds to globalisation (and dilution of place identity)->> over 1000 Transition initiatives worldwide

Answer 22

Features which promote happiness and well-being in a place - depend on positionality

Answer 23

In 2020, the Sunday Times deemed Altrincham in Greater Manchester as the best place to lived due to its revitalised town centre, schools and proximity to Dunham Massey - a National Trust property and park) and the tons initial response to the COVID 19 pandemic

Answer 24

Placemaking- The deliberate shaping of an environment to facilitate social interaction and improve a community’s quality of life

Answer 25

The placemaking movement, which has expanded rapidly in recent years, places great emphasis on all three aspects (identity, belonging and wellbeing)

Answer 26

● The promotion of place is crucial in the marketing of holiday destinations. ● Food items are increasingly marketed in terms of the place from which they came, and the popularity of events may be linked to the reputation of the place at which they happen. The Glastonbury Music Festival would be an example here. ● People may ‘buy into’ or ‘consume’ place. For example, those who like the countryside tend to holiday in rural locations, enjoy books and television programmes about these areas, spend money on walking gear and maps and even furnish their houses in a rustic country style. Numerous products are marketed so that people can buy into the notion of the rural idyll.

Answer 27

 All places are shaped by people and understood by them in different ways  It follows that anybody whose behaviour varies from what is seen as normal may feel uncomfortable  The dominant groups, who have economic, social, and cultural power in a location or a society, may make such ‘wrongdoers’ feel out of place.

Answer 28

- a business person may feel in place in Canary Wharf in London, whie a homeless person may not

Answer 29

Gender roles - 'a women's place is in the home' - affected types of places women felt comfortable

Answer 30

people without place- In the UK , media reports, and anti migration group use metaphors (water, blood and disease) to describe the influx of refugees. Deaths of migrants in the Mediterranean highlight how government aren't in charge of people not in their place as such Presence of migrants has met with great resistance and calls from some to protect 'our place' and 'our culture' against people who do not belong here

Answer 31

interested in finding out about groups in society that are excluded not spatially but also socially, politically, or economically and the reasons for this separation. – e.g. immigrants; local nationals, but feel separate from it). o There is a greater need to understand why people feel out of place due to the influx of immigrants from other countries

Answer 32

argues that people, things and practices are strongly linked to particular places and when these links are broken, they are deemed to have committed something of a crime - e.g. graffiti on historic buildings or litter in AOOB

Answer 33

ethnic minorities, immigrants, local nationals (born and brought up in a place but who feel separate from it). Homeless people- made to feel like an outsider - anti homeless spikes in sheltered areas outside flats in Southwark, London

Answer 34

* People who feel like they belong in a certain place and that is their home * Born in Country X or their parents were born there * Permanent resident * Holds a passport for X * Can work, vote, claim benefits like free housing and healthcare * Fluent in the local language * Understand unspoken rules of the society of X * Conforms to local norms * Safe, secure, happy- feels at home or ‘in place’ in country

Answer 35

* People who feel out of place in a certain place and that they don’t belong * Not born in X, they are an immigrant/ or their parents or grandparents were immigrants * Temporary visitor * Holds a foreign passport/ or limited visa to stay in X * May not be able to work, vote, claim benefits * May be travelling for business/ in search of work, pleasure, safety ( an asylum seeker) * Not fluent. Does not understand local idioms * Frequently make faux paus or misunderstand social interactions * Homesick, in exile- feel ‘out of place’ o In the past, and often still today, this has included travellers, protestors, and lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans people o Migrants are often referred to as ‘out of place’.

Answer 36

The significance that an individual or group attaches to a particular place may be influenced by feelings of belonging or alienation, a sense of being an insider or an outsider.

Answer 37

‘To be inside a place is to belong to it and identify with it, and the more profoundly inside you are the stronger is the identity with the place’

Answer 38

factors such as a person’s gender, race, ethnicity, religion, politics, socioeconomic status, and sexuality may affect their perception of place.

Answer 39

Mecca, Saudi Arabia - to Muslims - the holiest of religious places - to non -Muslims- viewed as a more historical and cultural place

Answer 40

the expected behaviours and norms associated with expensive or exclusive hotels or restaurants may make people from disadvantaged background feel alienated (e.g. exclusionary rules like dress codes) OR for those familiar with the routines , rituals and traditions of a place they will feel welcomed and thoroughly in place

Answer 41

Asian and Black people excluded from Rural England - numbers of black and asian people in the national trust or the ramblers is v small - Historically migrants went to cities so they have little connection to the rural idyll - A project called Mosaic builds links between black and ethnic minorities and the national parks and YHA etc - What is the rural idyll? - after the decline of the industrial north, London became more important but very polluted- national propaganda advertised the countryside as an ideal Britain. - shown by John Constables Hay Wain White people excluded from inner urban areas? - for example, Tower Hamlets - % of the population who are Asian origin is larger than the percentage of the white British - 2021- 39.4% white, 44% Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh

Answer 42

People actively compare themselves with others who live in distant places , specifically those who they feel are different, alien or exotic 'us' and 'them' - whinging poms - Australian name for the English -On the international stage, racist ideologies have been used to justify atrocities committed in wars and by colonial powers, including the British

Answer 43

The inspiration for the international Fairtrade movement has been to reduce inequalities between us and them, approaching growers and producers, wherever they are located, with greater respect

Answer 44

‘if history is about time, Geography is about space… space is the dimension of the simultaneous.. this means that space is the dimension that presents us with the existence of the other. Space presents us with the question of ‘how are we going to live together’ – MASSEY

Answer 45

* They could refer to the geographical distance between places * Equally, they could describe the emotional connection with a particular place and how comfortable a person feels within that place. * ‘near’ places today do not necessarily foster identities of familiarity and belonging due to globalised culture, travel and media- * Far places not so far and far-off places are not automatically strange, uncomfortable, and different.

Answer 46

If we use a faster method of travel or if we use the internet to maintain contact with people in distant places, perhaps this division of the world begins to break down – as the so called friction of distance is overcome

Answer 47

With the forces of globalisation, some geographers propose that space is reducing in importance and that ‘the Near is often an expanding domain’ – Levy 2014

Answer 48

 Some places feel more familiar than others partly due to personal experience  Today people travel a lot. We have access to faster transport and have more leisure time  You may feel a deeper emotional attachment to a place that you have visited in person and felt you understood, than somewhere you heard about on the news 'You had to be there' - environmental stimuli (all sense)

Answer 49

We cannot go everywhere, so we depend on media representations of some places to help us make sense of the world- do we really gain a sense of place?! In the so called ‘information age’, we are bombarded with images and other forms of representation of the world The ‘reality’ of a place can be far different to that put across by the media and this is most clearly seen through the portrayal of rural places.

Answer 50

o - stereotyped as a happy, healthy and close-knit community with few problems of urban life – was idyllised o - Doc Martin o - Postman Pat o Reinforce the stereotypes with focusing on more nostalgic images of the countryside o Advertising companies hides a host of problems – which disadvantage low income household sin rural areas  Unemployment and underemployment  The scarce availability of affordable housing  The reduction in public transport services  Rural homelessness

Answer 51

o Cities are often stereotyped in a negative way – economic, social deprivation, homelessness, crime, vandalism and pollution o However, successful regeneration of urban areas has made city living far more attractive in recent decades

Answer 52

Paris syndrome is often defined as a “state of severe culture shock”. Physical and psychological symptoms when Paris fails to live up to expectations have been known to include hallucinations, a rapid heart rate, dizziness and nausea. Around 20 Japanese tourists are afflicted by the ailment each year.

Answer 53

- Media/ Fiction books o Researchers suggest that some of the places that are most important to us today exist only in books, films, and games and our imagination o It is worth noting that such fictional media places may be associated with a physical location o The place that inspired the story or the location where it was films o E.g. fans of ‘Hobbiton’ can take a trip to the visitor attraction near Matamata, in Waikato, New Zealand

Answer 54

- Town planners aim to evoke a sense of place - The term genius loci – is often used in planning to describe the key characteristic of a place with which new developments much concur o By landscape architects, who design public spaces. Landmarks for councils, national parks ad multi national organisation - However, the idea that every place has a true nature is a matter of some debate - Massey, Peter Jackson and others have written about the way in which all place meanings have been socially constructed - They assert that the most widely held meanings benefit, and are reproduced by the most powerful groups in society - Different people notice different things about the same place and react differently to it - A single place may create Topophilia in some people and Topophobia in others – e.g. the landscape of a National Park - So, perhaps a direct experience of a place is not a s important as you might have first thought

Answer 55

Character of place- the physical and human features that help to distinguish it from another place Many aspects of local, regional, national and international geography influence character of place

Answer 56

Endogenous: location, topography, physical geography, land use, built environment and infrastructure, demographic and economic characteristics.

Answer 57

- Character is linked to natural and cultural features in the landscape and the people in the place - endogenous - are those that originate internally and may include aspects of the site or land on which the place is built

Answer 58

o urban or rural? o Proximity to other settlements o Main roads o Physical features – rivers , coast

Answer 59

o Hills or mountains, height, relief etc.. o Physical geography o Relief, altitude, aspect, drainage, soil and rock type (geology) o Example – Aberdeen (Granit City) vs village of Abbotsbury ( limestone) in Dorset o Both areas use local stones to build houses – gives the built environment a particular colour and contributes to its character

Answer 60

o Agricultural area, urban, industrial?

Answer 61

o Age of type of housing – Georgian Edwardian, Victorina etc o Building density o Building materials – example o ‘Derbyshire is rugged. Dorset is quaint’ o Dorset- thatched homes, Peak District – ‘robust and simple’ ‘plain’ housing

Answer 62

o Motorways or single track lanes o Rail connections o Distance to airport

Answer 63

o Pop size and structure – ageing or youthful pop, ethnicity? o Age, employment status, education, home ownership – census data

Answer 64

o Primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary industries o Employment opportunities o Educational attainment and opportunities o Income o Mobility of the population to work

Answer 65

- Social o Health o Crime rates o Local clubs and societies o Amenities - Cultural factors o Heritage, religion, language o Dialects- ‘Ay up mi duck’ – Derbyshire o Vary greatly in the UK – sense of place o But also prompt a stereotyping of local people- hiding diversity - Political – role and strength of local councils or resident groups

Answer 66

- Some places may have an industrial story- others may have developed as agricultural places pr tourist resorts – had one distinct function (good defensive position, a bridging point, availability of natural resources, routes, trading centres) - As they have developed, exogenous factors become more important- initial functions diminish as tech advances

Answer 67

EXOGENOUS FACTORS – . are those that have an external cause or origin/ relationship with other places.

Answer 68

People, Resources, Money and Investment, Ideas

Answer 69

o For example a village may supply workers to a nearby town or a town may be the source of day-trippers for a tourist destination o Migration  UK became a multicultural society- problems- conflict, housing stress- changing character of the place  When in the EU, the UK welcomed immigrants from the other 27 member countries  Flows of people to the UK form the EU peaked at 1.5 million between 2004-2009  New cultures, food, music, ways of life-> change of character  Fish industries and farms benefitted from influx of chape labour  New shops on highstreets  Schools struggle to cope with number roc children with English as their second language  The pattern of migration in the UK (mostly into cities)  Also emigration – 2009 saw more national from the 8 central and eastern European state sleave the country than arrive – money department  Brexit * Decline in immigrants will leave British industries previously dependant on the immigrant workforce having to pay more to attract British nationals – falling profits, jobs losses etc…, high prices- British exports less competitive and too pricey for Brits- failure of companies and more importing o New comers into a inner city- can led to gentrification- new character

Answer 70

1.5 million, 2004-2009

Answer 71

o Outsourcing resources- impacts mines in UK?

Answer 72

o Deindustrialization, unemployment, economic restructuring, urban decline of traditional industrial cities – manufacturing as more overseas (shit I investment) o mining, steel and shipbuilding towns- changing character due to deindustrialisation

Answer 73

Demographic - age, gender, education, religion, birth rates, ethnicity, pop size - People o Local o global - Money and Investment o Local o National  For example, the economic rise and fall of British industrial cities in the nineteenth and twentieth century and the impact this had on their population and environment. o Global  British seaside resorts have also undergone significant change in the last sixty years as they have had to adapt to increasing numbers of British people travelling abroad for their holidays. - Resources o Local o Global - Ideas o Local o National  The Government One Child Policy in China , implemented in 1980 and ended in 2016 to reduce growh rate  Incentives were offered to families ocmplyign with the policy- financia perks, greater employment options  Impact * FR and BR decreased * Natural increase declined * 400 million births prevented by the policy * Overall sex ratio skewed toward males – preference of sons- more abortions for females , andoning or orphans * Even after the one-child policy was rescinded, China’s birth and fertility rates remained low, leaving the country with a population that was aging too rapidly as well as a shrinking workforce. * by 2050, older adults will account for more than one-third of the total population. * o Global

Answer 74

- People o Local o global - Money and Investment o Local  HS2 impacting Great Missenden and causing rising house prices  Wembley regeneration project * Vision o New stadium o Community focus o National regional and local leisure destination o Londen Convention centre o Centre or work o Cultural and educational centre o High quality retail o Mixture of housing types and tenures * Brent has been able to secure over £2 billion of commercial investment into Wembley * Brent in2Work has supported on average 1000 Brent residents a year into work * The Council has secured planning consent for 500 new homes and work is underway on site o o National o Global  World Bank running 24 development projects in Haiti - Resources o Local o Global - Ideas o Local o National – Iran’s media ban  Internet has been shut off in parts of Tehran and Kurdistans-> regional  Blocked access to Instagram and WhatApp to cubr the goriwng portets movement that relied on social media to document dissent  “internet shutdowns must be understood as an extension of the violence and repression that is happening in physical space” – Azadeh Akbari (researched of cybersurveillance)  Iranian government and Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps persistently block social media  often block Blogger, HBO, YouTube, Netflix  by 2008, Iran had blocked access to over 5,000,000 websites as content deemed immoral and anti-social  impact on character… * little or specified perception externally because people can’t see what’s actually happening

Answer 75

- People o Local o Global  The British rule in India also led to the flow of British people to the subcontinent * This led to change in the demographic, which was mainly Hindu and Muslim, but now included Christians * The demographic also changed as more, Indians attended universities and attained qualification – this led to an increase in Indian professional and established an Indian Middle class - Money and Investment o Local o National o Global  Coca Cola now the second most recognised word in the world  KFC has westernised Japan and KFC on Christmas day is now a tradition after the 1974 campaign - Resources o Local o Global - Ideas o Local o National  One child policy left an impact that chnaged the culture- notion of what makes a women successful had chnaged  1970s policy in Germany (as part of democratisation process) – ‘culutre for eveyone’ * Encouraged more culture – arts made accessible for all members, * Litertaure, art, beer, suagues, pilioshoy o Global  India, a predominantly Hindu country, has seen an increase of Christianity in the last decade  Flow of the idea of westernisation to India due to British empire * English become the language used in courts and education and Christian English was taught * However, change is not always liked- native Indians felt forced into this ‘alien culture; * There was increasing resentment as Britain showed little respect for their religious sensitive and this led to the Indian Mutiny of 1857

Answer 76

o Royal family – King Charles  Poundbury, Dorset- more philanthropic * Charles was patron as its on the dutchy of Cornwall land * The foundation stone for this urban extension of 2500 dwelling to the west of Dorchester was laid by Charles in 1993  He is very outspoken on British architecture * 1984- new wing of national gallery – ‘monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much loved and elegant friend’ * National Theatre- ‘clever way of building a ncuealr power station in the middle of Lodnon without anyone objecting’  Principles * Development must respect the land. They must not be intrusive, they should be designed to fit within the landscape they occupy * Material also matter * The pedestrian must be at the centre of the design process, streets must be reclaimed from the car

Answer 77

 Joseph Damer – owner of Milton Abbey  Brown (influential landscape architect) – style of open grassland  In the 1770s- Brown helped Jospeh to create a place for the residents of Milton town to move into – moved the WHOLE TOWN – ‘spoiled the view’  With an act of Parliament he moved the grammar school to Blandford  He convinced the community of Milton to leave - he closed d roads to disrupt trade to force people to leave, flooded a property  Then the buildings were demolished and the town was moved south eats to create the village of Milton Abbas o The examples of Milton Abbas and Poundbury demonstrate that individuals within the aristocracy have, historically, wielded considerable power in the place-making process and, to some extent , Britain’s royal family still dose

Answer 78

o Community or local groups may take an active role in managing and improving the perception of their place to attract investment and improve opportunities and services within the area. o Regeneration and rebranding strategies have increasingly involved local people, since they have the ‘insider’ experience of place and will be the people most affected by any changes. o Residents’ associations and heritage associations play an important role and social media is increasingly being employed to engage and involve local people in planning and place-making schemes

Answer 79

o New Era Estate  The growing investment in London property by transnational corporations, like Westbrook Partners, and wealthy foreign individuals is recognised as fuelling a dramatic rise in house prices  Rents rising- gentrification  Local groups have become a force for change in housing policy in London – protested, social media, celebrities to further their cause * Protestors from the new era estate outside the offices of US investment company Westbrook Partners, which threatened to increase their rents in 2014

Answer 80

- Local gov- British own currency - National gov- see policies in demographic/socio-economic/cultural o May have introduced affordable housing- local people can remain in the are keeping close family links o Regeneration have cause gentrification, forcing out local people o Migration policies- cause different ethnic groups to move in – arrival of shops, religious buildings, traditions o Regeneration of Salford Quays and the policy of decentralisation have led to the relocation of the BBC at Media city – helped shape the present economic and demographic charter of Salford Quays

Answer 81

- Regional- EU investment in an area may have built a new road – cut down commuting time, increased employment opportunity

Answer 82

o National Trust – retaining past connections in character  5.37 million members- more than pop of Costa Rica o reinforces notion of permanence and longevity o What may appear to be a permanent or unchanging feature of a place, may in fact be a land use created by the economic power of aristocracy – due to social processes not acceptable today

Answer 83

o Investments of the WB in some slims areas- for example, Dkibouti Vile o Major Sporting events - these can transform communities and places, for example the East London 2012 Olympic Games had both positive and negative legacy effects, transforming one of the poorest districts of London but also forcing up rents and forcing out some of the poorest members of those communities. o World Bank  In 2020, the World Bank was running 24 development projects in Haiti  Impact: Post-earthquake and hurricane reconstruction and reaction to COVID-19 o UN  Sustainable Development Goals  for example, the UN try to coordinate responses to disaster events such as post-earthquake reconstruction of both homes and communities, with a varied level of success around the world. This can have a direct impact on the character of places.

Answer 84

o Major local impacts  Large companies have completely transformed places such as Shenzhen which has grown into an enormous city due to the relocation of manufacturing industries there  Similarly a loss of a TNC can have can change economic or demographic character * Job losses, factories converted into housing o E.g.  A new factory can cause a multiplier effect and created regeneration and more opprunties e.g. when Honda first came to Swidnon  In 2019 Honda announced the closure of its Swindon factory to move production to China, Japan and the USA * Job losses for employees and in the supply chain * Uncertain future for the 380-acre factory site * Left in 2021  In 2019, Tata Steel announced the closure of its site in Newport, South Wales due to competition from Chinese producers * Job losses for Newport; steel production has been a major characteristic of the town since the 19th century o Growth of airline TNCs- put British seaside resorts out of business – more travelling abroad o ‘McDonaldisation of the world’

Answer 85

- e.g. The redevelopment of areas of East London for the 2012 Olympic Games was not welcomed by everybody and this can be seen with other redevelopment projects currently planned or taking place in London. - Proposed housing estates, landfill sites, wind farms and bypasses can all create tensions between different stakeholders.

Answer 86

- London o 2012- BBC in collaboration with the Open University researched past and present condition of 6 London streets – used poverty maps of Charles Booth as a base and investigated the changing social and economic conditions of the residents who lived their o Portland Road, Notting Hill, considered in 2012, ‘the most gentrified street in the UK’ and home to some of London’s wealthier residents, was in 1899 the worst slum in London. In contrast, Deptford High Street has gone from being the ‘Oxford Street of South London’ to ‘one of the poorest shopping streets in London, marooned amid 1970s housing blocks.’

Answer 87

The examples look at changing places on a progressively larger scale.  They illustrate how the characteristics of places can be shaped by a very different range of factors, including people, resources, money and investment.  They also serve to show how past and present connections within and beyond localities can help shape places and the lives of the people who live there Port Sunlight , The Wirral - Shaped entirely by ideas of Wiliam Hesketh Lever - Built as a garden village (‘garden city movement) from 1888 mon the western bank of the River Mersey - He acuqeuired the site to build a new factory (shifting flows of money) for expanding his soap business with an adjing model village for his workers - He championed the businedd model of ‘prosperoty sharing’ and instead of sharing the profits directly with his employees he provided them with high quality, sanitary, and spacious housing with social amntites and welfare prvosision in picturesque surroudnings - Arts and carfts designed houses - Community allotments - Provided church, hospital, post office, fire statsion, schools, clubs, dinig halls and neo-clasical Lady Lever Art Gallery - Present o Lever Brothers became Unilever ando ve the last 100 years has grown into a gkobal gaint prodcuign a huge range of goods – 95.52 billion value - Past o Port Sunlight chnaged very little o No longer primarily home of unilever emppyees, but great efforts are made ot maintain its original appearance and community feel o In 1966 almost 1,000 houses and most of the public buildings became Grade II listed and in 1978 the village was designated a Conservation Area. o Unilever still has an interest in maintaining the character of Port Sunlight, and in 1999 they set up the Port Sunlight Village Trust (PSVT). o Whilst Ellesmere Port and Liverpool, across the River Mersey, have experienced huge amounts of change from deindustrialisation to regeneration, the PSVT and the residents have gone to great efforts to maintain a self-sustaining village that is still true to the original ideals of William Lever

Answer 88

Devonport , Plymouth - In contrast to Port Sunlight it has chnaged ocnsiderdbly due to external forces - Originally a naval dockyard due to its location on the deep water natural habour Plymouth sound - By 18th century one of the fastes rowing tows in the ocuntry - However, in 1952, the Navy requisitioned the town cenre as as torgae enclave and enclosed it with a 3m high wall – the community was split in two and displaced residents were rehoused in flats illsuited for family living - Naval josb then continued to delcien- socio economic prorblmes - On the up? o Shifting money and investment o From 2001–11, Devonport benefited from the New Deal for Communities initiative which provided funding to improve some of the most deprived areas of the UK. o The scheme specified place-related outcomes such as addressing crime, community and housing, and people-related outcomes such as education, health and employment. o Community groups such as the Pembroke Street Estate Management Board were heavily involved. o The dividing naval wall was removed, inter-war housing and flats demolished, and historical landmarks incorporated into the redevelopment of the area o The regeneration has also tried to attract a wider range of people with options for private or shared ownership and the availability of social housing. o The construction of Georgian-inspired homes in the ‘Village by the sea’ development has attracted people from higher socio-economic groups to Devonport o There are still pockets of deprivation within Devonport, but both quantitative and qualitative data show that the New Deal programme and other redevelopment projects have significantly changed and improved the area, with benefits to local residents. o A major redevelopment of Devonport’s docks was announced in 2020 to create 600 jobs and future-proof the economy by allowing it to refit the latest nuclear submarines.

Answer 89

Medellin, Columbia - The city was associated with drugs and violence for a long time ‘most dangerous sicty in the world’ - The notorious drug lord Pablo Escobar wielded encomours power until he died in 1993 - Unemployment, crime, poverty widespread- social inequality - BUT TODAY- Present connections o Has become a model for urban regernation and sustianbel city planning through long term investment sin infrastructure \nd education o City panners reocngsied the need to make the city equally accesbile to all citizens o Its long divided social classes are now more able to intrgetae in everyday eocnomci and educational acticies - The city’s poorest, many of whom reside in shanty houses in the Aburra Valley, can now access the city’s booming economic centre courtesy of a series of outdoor escalators and a gondola system that carries people up and down the valley - Additional innovations include: - ● a bus rapid transit system named Metroplus, with dedicated bus lanes - ● an extensive above-ground tram system - ● a city-wide ride-sharing program.  Emission-free transport has been promoted, and this has been helped by the EnCicla initiative, a free bike-sharing programme that offers an integrated alternative to the city’s public and mass transportation systems.  Education, social programmes and the public arts and culture budgets have all been increased to transform the lives of the most underprivileged residents in this city. - There are still problems in Medellin. Poverty rates have fallen but inequality between rich and poor has increased and cultural and geographic barriers continue to limit social integration. o Crime rates and gang violence remain high. o However, change takes time and there is a great feeling of optimism within the city.

Answer 90

Meaning – Meaning relates to individual or collective perceptions of place.

Answer 91

Representation – Representation is how a place is portrayed or ‘seen’ in society

Answer 92

- For children, emotional attachment to place is the most important factor shaping place meaning and this is why ‘home’ is often their most important place - Why is the way humans perceive , engage with and form attachment to places important? o - connecting to ones’ surrounding environment establishes knowledge of and appreciation of its resources o Sense of place supports the development of personal identity o A strong sense of place can inspire stewardship and understanding, and nurture empathy - Experiences develop our sense of place o Positive experience and enjoyment- can lead to a positive understanding of a place o Perceptions of a place depends on experience so are subjective - Media can develop attachment to place - Sense of place affects out perspectives and identity

Answer 93

Perception of place – This is the way in which place is viewed or regarded by people. This can be influenced by media representation or personal experience.

Answer 94

o Advertisements or tourist agency material o Local exhibitions of art, film and photography o Poetry o Song o Example  Dartmoor National Park is colosley linked with nature, weilderness in different artsitc and literay works- Arthur Conan Doyle- Houdn of the Bskivilles o Experiences o Media= perceptions of international places tend to be influenced more by the media than personal and direct experiences o Historical and political relationships or trading links

Answer 95

- Economic powerhouse, industrial city - Was once the largest producer of linen in the world - 30 years of conflict- The Troubles but since has undergone a sustained period of calm and substantial economic and commercial growth - Large scale redevelopment- different parts rebranded as ‘quarters’ and empahsie their unique hsitroy - Titanic Qaurter (where titanic was built) one of the largest browfiled redevelopment sites in Europe – more than 100 companies there- Microsoft etc.. o Home to the Titianic Belfate Cntre visted by 4 million people from 145 counties o Home to the set of Game of Thrones – filmed in a former shipyard paint hall - Tourism- 2018- vsiitors contributed £4000 million to local economy - Therefore- Belfats managed to represent it self and change its international image and visitors are not put off by events that have gone before - Representation – City Council and Tourits Board - Representation- peace lines and walls that segregated protestants and catholic apart now feature murals , tourism , it is hoped that the walls will be taken down as community relations strengthen

Answer 96

These are the people who impact on a place whether through living, working or trying to improve that place. Examples would include residents, community groups, corporate entities, central and local government and the media.

Answer 97

o Example  Based in a derelict seafront lido and billed as a ‘bemusement park’, Banksy’s Dismaland featured artworks on themes including the apocalypse, anti-consumerism and celebrity culture.  Unlike other British seaside resorts like Margate in Kent, which has built up a more positive representation following the opening of the Turner art gallery, WestonSuper-Mare relies on its beaches and traditional seaside attractions for visitors.  Banksy’s work brought significant benefits to a resort which has experienced significant decline in the last few decades. It is estimated that an additional 150,000 people visited the town as a result of the attraction and they added £20 million to the local economy. More importantly, local tourist chiefs were delighted that it helped to put the place of Weston Super-Mare more firmly on the map. 

Answer 98

o Keen to attract trade and investment into their countries so a postive place perception is therefore important at an international level  People more likely to live or work in a place with a good reputuaiton an positive image o Marketing or public rleations PR companies may be employed by national and local government ot improve or create postive perceptions of place  Aim to sell a place  Advertising cmagins, websites, social media, newsletters, logo, billboards .promotion of event

Answer 99

o Institutions, business, non -proft enterprise, government agencies o Example- Llandudo - New business like The Looking Glass ice cream Parlour created jobs (attracted investment) due to Alice in Wonderland place perception o Example- Visit Britian- (non departmental public body funded by the Department for Digtial, Culture, Media and Sport)  2015 social media campign to give chinese name landmark across the country boosted torusit numbers  Visit Britain estimates that the campaign, on the Weibo and WeChat social media platform, reached nearly 300 million potential Chinese tourists  for every 22 additional Chinese visitors to Britain one additional UK job in tourism is created o Example – airline and trian companies – artwork at statsion emerged ta the beginning of 20h century as companesi comissed posters , sometime sby famous artists, to sell the dleights of British coats and countryside and boost train passneegrs o - CHANGING INDIVUDALs behaviour

Answer 100

o Example o Rebrand of Llandudno in North Wales as Alice Town  Were alice in wonderland was based  On the 60th anniversity of the birth of Alice Liddel (the girl it was based on), the Conwy County Council commissioned 4 large wooden sculptures of characters from the book  Alice town trail o 2012- Pembrokeshire coast National Park authority – vintage inspired designed at the cardiff airports, UK railways and across London underground to increase tourism , very successful in attracting more poel to the area

Answer 101

- Community o Community or local groups may take an active role in managing and improving the perception of their place to attract investment and improve opportunities and services within the area. o Regeneration and rebranding strategies have increasingly involved local people, since they have the ‘insider’ experience of place and will be the people most affected by any changes o Residents’ associations and heritage associations play an important role and social media is increasingly being employed to engage and involve local people in planning and place-making schemes o Example  The Alice liddle innovative community enterpirse Ltd was founded with the eths ‘to firmly etsbalsih and market the Alcie in Wonderlan connection worlwide’  All profts form trail linekd maps a nd apps were reinvested into community projects  An annual Alice Day o Example- #theafricathemedianevershowsyou- crowdsource cmapig – to show lived experienced - Monarchy plays a pivatol role in promoting international rleations for the UK

Answer 102

- Reimagining- Re-imaging disassociates a place from bad pre-existing images in relation to poor housing, social deprivation, high levels of crime, environmental pollution and industrial dereliction- place and generate a new, positive set of ideas, feelings and attitudes of people to that place - This may include the revival of a pre-existing but outdated place image. - More commonly, it seeks to change a poor pre-existing image of a place. - o It can then attract new investment (change behaviour of businesses) , retailing (businesses behaviour), tourists and residents- change in individual behaviour - Rebranding- Rebranding is the way or ways in which a place is redeveloped and marketed so that it gains a new identity. It can then attract new investment, retailing, tourists and residents. It may involve both re-imaging and regeneration o Many argue that rebranding must start from the inside and involve local residents with insider experiences – e.g. Relp and Tuan - Regeneration - Regeneration is a long term process involving redevelopment and the use of social, economic and environmental action to reverse urban decline and create sustainable communities - The people behind the catchy slogan, hashtag, or map of a heritage landscape have a particular task- to change our perception

Answer 103

o Problems  Different stakeholders- pre-existing residents, local businesses, potential investors, local government and potential homeowners or visitors and it is a challenge to satisfy as many of these groups as possible  Resident-s want to portect and project their lcoa distinctiveness  Development agencies want to estbalsih a place bran base don government incentievs, avaibel tech and an areas international links o Some schemes have actually driven out locals they ogrinally intended to help – gentrification

Answer 104

- Example- 2013- People Make Glasgow new brand name – from a crowdsourcing media campaign - Example- Amsterdam o Reputation as a major internal cultural centre threatened by a number of factors  Greater competition from other cities both within and outside of the Netherlands  Socioeconomic decline in some areas  Liberl towards soft drugs and positions – inapprotoate for tatarctign new investors  A fiale dbi to host the Olympocs o Stregeties  I Am Amerstdam slogan- 3D letters in front of the city’s famous Rijksmusuem in 2005 and now has been phtogrpahedover 800 times a day  Social media – spread image across the world  Amertsdam becam eoen of the msot successful destination brands on social media  Re-imaging too successful- ‘over tousim’  Before COVID, tourist numbers predicted to rise to over 20 million per year

Answer 105

o Example- Slough  Butt of jokes for years  Betjeman- ‘come friendly bombs and fall on Slough/It isn’t fit for humans now’  Jimmy Carr- ‘if you want to kwn what Slough was like int h 1970s go there now’  Ricky Gervais – needed a ‘middle earnign , middle aged and middle management’ set  Trevor Lambert- rebranding team- Betjeman has a lot to answer fo- he never actually came to Slouhh  ‘Proud ot tbe Slugh’ logo  UK’s third msot producitv etown outside London  Has europe’s largest privalty owned insutrial

Answer 106

- Tourist agency material o E.g. Vsisit Britian , National Parks, Rialway companies, o Brochures, vdieos, websites, magazine ads, slogans, logos to adopt a unique selling point o Songs, stories, photos, film , art

Answer 107

Influence social and economic charteritsi , present meanings - However, in many ways, studentification remains distinct from gentrification, as the former typically contributes to a long-term decline in the physical environment and tenurial transformation toward renting (Smith, 2005). Social - Less owner occupied family housing, more shared private-rented housing and in shrot term rented tenancies – Houses of Multiple Occupancy - Bars and fast food outlets replace primary schools - Street blight- porptiesl ie unkempt and desertes outside of term time - Perception of studnt snes eof place - High levels of burglary and crime Economic - Escalation of proptey prices - Proliferation of to let boards - Closure of public and private services between July and Septmenerb

Answer 108

- Increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared ot rural areas - Happens as a country industrialises – employment in new factories , terraced housing for workers - 90% of the UK live in towns and cities - Social impacts o Greater poverty, local governments undbale to provide service for everyone o Concentrated energy use leads to greater pollution – impact on human health o Large volumes of uncollected waste creates hazards o Can a=magnigy the risk of enviro hazards- flooding flashy - Economic impacts

Answer 109

- Outward growth of urban development on outlying areas of the city – so close enough for city to be accessible - Social - Economic o Increase rsouec consumption – use more land, use more reousces to commute

Answer 110

Counter urbanisation - More an dmore people choosing to live on the edge of urban areas with many going to the countryside - Why? o Able to commute o Online shopping o Safe o More value fo money in housing o Less congestion o Work form home - Social o Better housing o Finally, socially it has both negative and positive effects because it could cause an increase in a community feel however with people buying the homes as holiday homes, some of the homes are empty for long periods during the year - Economic o Economically it is strong for the local towns because they are receiving more people who will spend money at the local shops and also pay taxes o The industrial sector continue to delcien and there is a rise in the service sector o Second homes – uncoopried for majoirty of year- local businesses cannot compete

Answer 111

- Social o Urban areas become renovated, refurbish and improved at little cost to authorities o Increasing social division as existin communities feel powerfless ot influence changes - Economic o Increased customers for inner city business and retailers , libraries,schools, etc.. o House proces increase rapidly, pricing out less affueltn local people o High rents

Answer 112

- In 1925, Burgess proposed a descriptive urban land use model that divided cities into concentric circles expanding from downtown to the suburbs. This representation was built from Burgess’s observations of several American cities, notably Chicago, for which he provided empirical evidence. The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status (mainly income) of households and the distance from the Central Business District (CBD). The further from the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the commuting time. Thus, accessing better housing is done at the expense of longer commuting times (and costs).

Answer 113

Stats- - census – age, gender structure ethnicity, economic deprivation level o produced by the Office of National Statistics and stats are at national, regional and local levels o every 10 years - IMD o Criticism  Ranks and deciles are relative – they show that oen area is more deprived than another but not by how much o when interpreting maps the eyes drawn to last swaths of colour. This may be misleading as a geographically large local authority district may have a smaller population than a smaller geographical district o the neighbourhood level indices provided description of areas but not of individuals with within those areas o the indices identify aspects of deprivation, not affluence  the rich are aren't mapped - Criticisms o The use of quantifiable data such as statistics is not as objective as it may first appear. This is because people selectively choose the data they wish to use for their particular purpose. Their use therefore becomes subjective. Another criticism of using statistics when studying place is that they tell us very little about the human experience of a place and what it is like to live there

Answer 114

- Dtat about pele is often geolocated – insight into the way we lvie and how geographic comunites differ - Concerns have been raised by some groups of people about the idea that our every move or browse online can be monitored and is tractable using big data

Answer 115

- Maps o Maps can include hidden bias and influence  Early world maps such as the Mappaundi c13-0 depicte the world as a flat disk with the Holy Land at the centre  During colonial epxnaion, maps exeafferaed area size and resources  In fact, Google Maps, like any search engine filters place – directing people towards businesses that have engineered their appearance on the first page of a Google search.  Mercator projection * Northern landmasses look much bigger * Map is Eurocentric - Biomapping or emotional cartography o E.g. 2015 in the series Coast- presenter Nichloas Crane was mapped by geographer Jon Anderson – his stress levels measure when in Lodnon and on the Coast and mapped - Oral o Interviews  Generated detailed isghts about a persons sense of place  Allow reposndents to raise issues the itnerviwer may not have anticipated * E.g. GM- issues of immirgtaion after WW2 came up  Can be used ot collect primary data that gives a depth of undertsanign about peoples lives and thie rlived experiences, opinions and feelings  Disadvantges * Bias may affect reposnes of interview by using leading questions * People may not be hoenst as they like to present themselves in a favourbale light * Time consuming * Lack of objecitity comapred with other approaches o Questionnare  Psuh reposndents into answers which may not fir their access to experiences  Little oppruntiy for eexplantion - Media o TV,Film,Photos, art, books, newpsapers, internt o Increasingly reaching a alrger global audeicne so very important ins apign wider perceptions o Phtos  Disdvanatges * Easily htoshooped and filietred to make them appear different * Can be selective in what they show o Marketing images tend to focus on the natural beatury of landscape without disturbance from humans * Who took it? o Textual sources  Novels evoe a sense of place * Thoams Hardy’s dosert * Bronte country in Wets Yorkshire and East Lanchsire  News- can be negative- e.g. media portrayal of city Liverpool – unemployment,e conomid eprivation o Poetry  William Wordsworth is linked to the Lake District  Seamus Heaney has written extensively about his Irish roots  William Blake famously described the poverty and despair of industrial London. o Music  Evokes a sense of place  Different types of music with different areas – e.g. reggae with Jamaiza * In 2010, Newport rapper Alex Warren and singer Terema Wainwright gained online fame with a parody of Jay-Z and Alicia Keys' "Empire State of Mind" called "Newport State of Mind." Their video, shot in black and white like the original, showcases Welsh landmarks instead of New York's. Wainwright sings with a thick Welsh accent, referencing local culture and landmarks. The parody quickly garnered nearly 200,000 views on YouTube within two days. Similar parodies for various UK locations have since appeared on the platform. o TV  Places are pivotal in storytelling, often associated with specific types of narratives, like haunted houses in horror or futuristic cities in sci-fi. However, media also shapes our perceptions of places, with both positive and negative effects.  For instance, the 2015 TV adaptation of Poldark boosted tourism in Cornwall * The 2015 television dramatisation of the Poldark novels had a positive impact on the Cornish tourist trade as viewers, inspired by the shots of the dramatic coastline and beautiful beaches, flocked to the county to soak up the atmosphere. * Hits on Visit Cornwall’s website soared by 65 per cent after the first episode alone and the property website Rightmove reported that househunting enquiries more than doubled. * It is anticipated that the ‘Poldark effect’ will be felt well into the 2020s.  Similarly, Game of Thrones transformed Northern Ireland's image, attracting thousands of tourists annually and significantly boosting the economy * Brought over £250 million into the economy since 2010 * Replaced image of the troubles .  These two examples have shown how TV and film can represent place in a positive way. The reverse can also be true. Many crime dramas are located in urban areas, but not all crime occurs in cities. Equally, the sites chosen for filming can portray the same place in very different lights. Compare, for example, the representation of London in EastEnders (BBC, 1985–present) with the more glamourous skylines and buildings of The Apprentice (BBC, 2005–present) or the settings for the crime dramas Sherlock (BBC, 2011–2017) and Killing Eve (BBC, 2018–present). o Art  Long been used to repsent place * Gainsborough and Constable (Figure 8.28) are known for their landscapes of Suffolk, now sometimes referred to as ‘Constable Country’ * French artist Paul Cezanne painted Provence in southern France * Japanese artist Hiroshi Yoshida is famous for his iconic wood block prints of Japanese landscapes.  The common criticism of such paintings was that they were pastoral fantasies giving the impression of a rural idyll, which did not exist for the majority of people living in the countryside at that time.  Paintings may be considered less reliable than photographs because there is more scope for individual interpretation and selection.  However, they can also show a deeper understanding of place because they allow the painter to show more of the character of what is there- lived experience  These paintings reflected a romantic vision which still shapes many people’s mental images of the countryside and is perpetuated through tourist brochures, chocolate boxes and jigsaw puzzles. Such constructs of rural places are powerful because they shape views on what the countryside is actually like and what it should be like. o Scultptues  E.g. Kelpies scultputre near Falkirk in Scotland  Graffit - It has traditionally been associated with youth cultures claiming ownership of a place but the famous UK graffiti artist Banksy argues that the importance of graffiti is also to give a voice to people who aren’t normally heard in the mainstream - Many consider graffiti as a type of vandalism and authorities are keen to remove it from public areas. Increasingly however, graffiti is being accepted into mainstream culture and art galleries may now stock graffiti images. In these places, graffiti is seen not as being ‘out of place’ but as something which can be bought and sold. It is also being used as a type of street art in the regeneration of places

Answer 116

- Large village in Bucks, in SE England - Connections: 49 mins NW of London by train and 6 miles N of major town High Wycombe

Answer 117

- In the Chiltern Hills- AONB- awarded in 1965 - Chalk escarpment at the head of the Melbourne valley - Northern edge of the village is Mob well pond- source of the Melbourne- a chalk fed river - The upper part of this river flows intermittently after winter rains and dries up using the summer- a winterbourne. - Some of the rarest species living in chalk streams, such as brown trout and the water vole have adapted. - geology – chalk, with soil made from silt deposits leading to large vegetation growth, Chiltern valleys were formed by melting glaciers half a million year ago - The church of St Peter and St Paul made from local chalk rocks and Portland Limestone Dorset rock This all adds to place meaning because this is the landscape that residents are fighting so hard to protect from the disturbance of HS2, this is what unites them.

Answer 118

o 2/3rds is ancient woodland – have the highest proportion of ancient woodland in the country o in 2010, the Chiltern Conservation Board undertook assessment of the ecological value of local woodland- the report affirmed the importance of the area and argued that the impact of ‘fragmentation of habitats and colonies of flora and fauna’ that would come from HS2 should be evaluated as part of any environment impact assessment. o The hedgerows in the Chilterns function as corridors for wildlife, aiding the dispersal of species and are important habitats for bird nesting and feeding, there are around 4000 km of hedgerow in the AONB.

Answer 119

- Flint churches - Roald Dahl Museum - Missenden Abbey - Highstreet - 60 buildings in GM are listed and date from the medieval period

Answer 120

- Great Missenden has had a variety of place meanings over the past millennium. Historically, in Saxon times, Great Missenden lay on the route between the Royal estates of King Harold in High Wycombe and Queen Elgiva of Chesham (individuals) - Later, in 1133, an Augustinian Monastery was established at Missenden Abbey, and remained until the dissolution of monasteries by Henry 8th in 1538. -gov policy? o King Henry II was a frequent visitor of the abbey – on the way from London to Brill o At the dissolution of the monastery, land was forfeited to the crown and left to Princess Elisabeth – drastically changed the role of the abbey and the town - In the 15th century, the high street was part of the route between London and the Midlands, the led to several inns being established on the Highstreet (the George Inn -1430-and Court House date from this period). - As the village grew to cater for more travellers, so further coaching inns appeared and, in Victorian times (1837) , there were 12 inns along the High Street and Church Street. - The community was reliant of the exogenous factor of travellers to invest in the town

Answer 121

- Now , GM place meaning revolves mostly around well known Roald Dahl – who lived there for 36 years o Numerous shops and services on the high street geared to the author- ‘the Roald dahl museum a, Café Twit and Matilda’s o Also a Roald dahl trail – discover how the village and surrounding countryside inspired many of his books - Abbey – remains important to the town and hosts many events throughout the year o Has been owned by Buck New Uni since the 1990s and has remained a training facility ever since Evaluation -- this change of place meaning is reflected in the conversion of a coaching inn into the Roald DAHL Museum – Displaying how the high street has altered - This change from a abbey to a university facility marks a change in the place meaning of Great Missenden, from one of royal importance to a much smaller role as a training CENTRE

Answer 122

- ITV Midsummer murders - 1980- horror film by Hammer Film producers - Denholm Elliot played an estate agent trapped in a recurring nightmare in barbers - ‘Matilda’ day – fore ne Matilda film

Answer 123

- Pop size and structure o Pop increased from 1576 in 1811 to 10138 in 2011 (543% increase )and 9960 in 2021 o Migration of polish people WW2 - Employment o great M has had a significant service sector, focused in and around the High Street, including its original 12 pubs o Until 1920s and 1930s – it was a market town and agricultural hub o Employment type changed from agricultural in 1811 to professional in 2011 o 2 Prime Ministers among its residents – Clement Attlee and Harold Wilson o Light industries played an important role after WW2 o it also had a thriving manufacturing sector including Gerhard’s -an electroplating and stove enamelling factory, owned by family who had fled Russia in the early 20th century  the Gerhadis move their business from the South Coast of England to great mrd in 1940 and supplied the aircraft industry during the war.  There is now housing where the factory once stood behind the High Street o Wright’s yard a major business in the local construction industry, employed almost 250 people before the Second World War and continued up into the 1980s o Today, the only business with the name Wright on the High Street is a funeral directors. o This local manufacturing sector has been lost to the economy which has in turn affected the job prospects for some young people in GM o - Infrastructure - Met line arrived in 1894- connection to London- became a commuter village, since been replaced with Chiltern line (led to more professionals)

Answer 124

- 2021 pop- 9960 - OLD o Elderly outnumber young dependants by 2.5% o Working age is 10.2% lower than average (52.3%) o Reflected by number of pension services and funeral services – bult enviro o Reflected by geospatial tat-> 42.9% e-veterans (internet used as a utility rather than entertainment o a new project ‘the CLsiters tha is creating homes fin GM ‘exlsuively for over 60s’ - WHITE o 96% white – 16.8% higher than pop o Only 47 people are ethnic o 85.6% born in England - XIAN o 69.9% Xian- 10.6% higher than national average o Reflected din the environment- 4 churches within walking distance and 27 within driving distances o Easter and Xmas dates in Missenden Abbey - DETACHED HOUSING o 40.52% DETACHED - Owned/mortgage houses o 76.6% PROPERTIES OWNED BY RESIDENTS- 13% HIGHER THN NATIONAL AVERAGE - Average house price- £751 000)- $450 000 more than UK avg - Income o > £43 000 – above bucks and UK average - Educated o 46.4% aged 17 to 74 had higher level qualifications (5.4% higher than UK average) - Not deprived o GM Ward is one of the 10% least deprived neighbourhoods in the country - PROFESSIONALS o Professional occupations – 23% o Managerial positions – 24% o All higher than UK average Future? - Interview data shows a significance % of young people on reaching employment age can no longer afford to stay

Answer 125

- 80 000 pop and 10 million within a us drive 2770 jobs are supported by visitors - 55 million leisure visits a year

Answer 126

Past - High street gone from a busy travel oriented street -> quieter area with small independent artisan shops Present - Easter Bank holiday – GM Food Festival – attracts visitors – boots economy - Last Sunday of every month – Roald Museums ‘scoff n’stroll’ a historic walk with tales of his books and surrounding are that inspire his stories - 45/50 shops independently owned - Restaurants and coffee shops , beauticians most common – showing a high disposable income- non essential activities - Minyulite cultural restarts surprisingly o Great Missenden New Akash Curry house chef voted best in bucks in 2022 in Eurasia awards - Chiltern hills- walkers, cyclists, day trippers etc… - Rolad Dahl -> Metidas , Café twist, musuem etc. (2016- 93 000 vistos post BFG film) o ‘Matilda day’ for new Matilda film - Abbey

Answer 127

Strong sense of localism from insiders - Protesting HS2 and conservation of 400 year old ancient woodland - E.g. Dirty Mavis ‘oak tree lament (Stop HS2)’ – 2011 o ‘this morning strangers came with axe and saw - Protesting against homogenisation and blandness of corporation shops - Residents fight to save 200 yr old oak tree (Ilona- supports 25000 species ) at risk of being felled by HS2 o Supported by MP Saharah green o There were successful o ‘HS2 now revving their plans’ - ‘save leather lane oaks’ o Been able to retain >40% of trees on leather lane - HS2 dominates the representation of GM o Concerns over value of houses and impact on local businesses o Peter Delow in 2011 stated that Philip Hammond - S of S for transport- thought that the Chilterns was ‘an inferior AON and could be trashed with impunity’ Young people forced to leave due to lack of money and high price houses – so elderly left as a dying breed o Regeneration needed to appeal to a younger population  E.g. housing near the station – travel to London or work Outsider perspectives - Philip Hammond – S of S for transport - ‘but some oppose the line purely on aesthetic grounds…. Scar on landscape… despoiling AONB’ - ‘have you looked ta the route?’ - ‘between Great Missenden and HS2 are the A413 and the Chiltern railway and a lien of pylons so this is no some constable country

Answer 128

Individual - Opposition from Dirty Massive and Peter Delo - though that Philip Hammond thought the Chilterns were an inferior AONB Local community - Community opposition to HS2 - Managed to save more than 40% of oak trees on leather lane - Chiltern conservatism board and Chiltern district council declared opposition on grounds of enviro impact and how it would dissect the AONB - Opposition to Tesco coming to the arwa- successful (but then coop came) - Oppsotion to coasta- unsuccessful Local gov/council National - First high speed rail In UK was HS1 – the channel tunnel - 2009- first proposal for HS2 o Why? o Would address capacity issues on Westcoast, reduce travel time to Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Edinburgh o Bridge north/south economic divide – allow business people to reach key cities sin the north - 2010- announced HS2 would go through GM and Chilterns (less than a mile from the village) - Boris Johnson said those who oppose HS2 are pretending to have environment objections when they are just NIMBY’s - Work began in 2018 Global - Concept of high speed rail has been expanding in Europe since 1980s - In 2007, the first HS rails launched din China Impact of HS2 - Traffic disruption - Excavation - Tree clearance - Businesses and homeowners affected by falling property prices (Oct 2022 – fall of 33% over the last 12 months) , decline in business- e.g. Annie Bailey’s restaurant closed in 2013 Future? – falling prices may attract younger again and boost economy ‘how far do you gre with the view that local and regional powers and processes determine the rate of change in a place more thn national and international infleunce’? - Local and regional power and processes are not as detrimental in determining rat eof change in a place, for example GM failures to stop HS3 - Instead, international and national influence hold this pwer as shown in the declien ad deprivation in Balckpool and the UK’s governemtns pwoower in caryoutng out HS2 -

Answer 129

Past - Reliant on travellers staying in the inns from 15th century to the 19th century Present - NOW: ‘a self-supporting, more or less closed world’ – ONE Hundred Years of Great Missenden- Valerie Eaton Griffith.

Answer 130

Quantitative - stastical and cartographic sources far more useful - e.g. land use surveys sho w geogrpahers hwo land use of GM has flcuatuated over years, indicating a change it character - the highstreet used to lie on the route between Lodnon ad Milands in the 15th century - this exogenous factor led to a change in ladn use with the higshtreet becoming home to 12 coachign inns in victroian times - ladn use - introudciton o the railway in 1892- this land used combined with statsical data showed a trend of GM becming a commuter sttelemt as people travlle dinto Lodnon for work – change in character as money tat would be incvetse dinto the town – e.g. during lunch breaks- was now beign investe dint the city- perhaps damaging the economy and traffic congestion could have increased - stast- chage of charcter due to changing emplpyemnt types - stast- demograohcus give insight into the ageing structure – several pensioner services and a new project ‘the CLsiters tha is creating homes fin GM ‘exlsuively for over 60s’ - stats- hous e prices- avg £751000- 450 000 more than natonal avg - 10% least deprived - This suggests GM is exlusleivy home to rich families - And is posha dn affuelnt - Alo shown by 45/50 of the highstreet ebign a indpednt – strong sense of localism - The most common shops were restuarents and coffee shops and barbers/beauticans showing that lcoals have a high levek of disposable income which theys pend on nonessential actviies – boosts economy - - downsides of census data etc…

Answer 131

Qualitative - Artistic sources can give a good idea of charcter of GM ucrrnelty, but perhaps articis sources give a more vague picture of the changing character rof GM - Twitterposts/pthogrpahy give a goo idea oftthe character rof GM - Most posts with #great miseenden convey local oppsiton to HS2 which is just a mile from the village , alongside multiple pucture of protestrs cmapgingin against its contrsuion o For exmapel, many protested - e.g. swampy- in order to save many fot he 100 year old trees in GM o This charcte rof strong localism is also illustrate dby Dirty Mavis song called ‘oak tree lament’ with lyrice ‘this morning stranger scame with axe and saw’ - RICHMONDsausge advert filemd in GM and displayed as a ‘cholcate box’ British village - This charcte rof beign a quientessial british village with rolling countryside was added to the Roald Dahl book made film ‘fantastic Mr Fox’ - These effectvley shown outsiders the experience of GM’s sense of place - Both thtese artistic sources dipaly the carcte rof GM by highlights attitdes of locals0 however fial to effecvitley present how the attided and hcarter of GM has change dover time - Better shown by statsical and cartographic sources – e.g. conversion of a coaching inn into the Roald Dahl museum – reflects change in place meaning from a place that epopel travel through to place people travel to – further relfcted Café Twit and Matlida’s coffeshops - However, a mixture of sources is still needed to give a geographer the best estimate of a places charcter and locale - Downsides of music.. in ore detail

Answer 132

Endogenous Location - Located in the North West of England and on the Fylde Coast Peninsula, Blackpool covers an area of around 35km², with 11.2km (7miles) of seafront. - 27 miles of Liverpool and 40 miles NW of Manchester Topography Physical geography - Climate - mixed weather , rainy (cannot compete with resorts elsewhere) - Coastal Land use Built enviro - Oversupply of HMOs which are unsuitable for families - >50% housing in inner areas is rented infrastructure - For a coastal town, Blackpool has good strategic transport links. - 1846- railway built - provided trade and long distance cheap travel for working classes

Answer 133

Past - Pop structure o Pop in 1800- 473 o Exponential from 1861- from 3000 to 153000 to 1961 (peak) - Deprivation as a result of budget airlines taking investment (TNCs) - Employment type o Unassuming fishing village o Tourism sector/ service sector Present - Key stats - Pop size and structure o Pop- 141036 2021 o pop decreased and counter urbanisation to surbs Fylde and Prestwood o Majority 50-64 yrs (ageing population )old – 21.9% o 94.7% white o 50.8% Xian o 88% born in the UK o 3% ethnic minorities - Employment o 6.2 % unemployed (compared to 3.8% UK) o 31.4% worked in distribution, hotels and restaurants sector in 2006 o Most hold 2 or 3 part time jobs for low pay, with shirt term contracts o GSCE attainment below average - Deprivation o Has the 6th highest proportion of LSOAs ranked 105 most deprived in the UK 39/94 LSOAs o 46% of pupils live in 10% most deprived neighbourhoods o Blackpool has one of the highest rates of young people claiming Universal Credit in the country - Crime- most dangerous town in Lancashire – 86% higher crime rate then age Lancashire and 91% than UK avg - Health o -UNHEALTHIEST ARE IN ENGLAND o 5 year LE gap with the rets of England o In yr 6 24% classified as obese o 27 yr gap in LE between man in Kensington compared to BP Future? - Deprivation being reduced do to government levelling up policy

Answer 134

Inequalities within BP - LE is 12.3 years lower for men and 10.1 yrs lower for women in the most deprived areas than the least - Bloomfield o high pop density -overcrowded o highest % of no qualification in BP-39% o Ward with the highest % of adults claiming unemployment benefits o -In Bloomfield alone there is an off-licence for every 250 people, each trying to undercut the other. In the town centre, all-night drinking is legendary, with some clubs not closing their doors until 7am o Bloomfield is the unhealthiest district in England's unhealthiest town, Blackpool. More than half of the local population smokes, the highest rate in the country. One in three pregnant women, even up to the point they go into hospital to give birth, are still smoking. Alcoholism is rife, while deaths from drug abuse rival those of the worst estates in London or Glasgow.

Answer 135

Past - Wealthy workers go on holiday to BP, spend income etc.., largely beach culture, but also music, and key places - Became a place for stag and hen does Now - Culture coming back? B side of the seaside Evidence of external agencies - Individuals o North pier- where sooty began by Harvy Corbet o ‘Oh blackpoll song’ by the Beautiful South o First music festival held there in 1901- hosted Beatles and Rolling stones Music o Winter gardens 1878- rolling stones, oasis, frank Sinatra have performed o Blackpool Pleasure beech 1896 – home to the grand national roller coaster- constructed by American engineer Charles Paide in 1935- now one of 2 surviving wooden Mobius Loop roller coaster in the world - Local council o Blackpool illuminations 1879 o Comedy carpet – one of the largest public art ever commissioned - The £2.6m Comedy Carpet was commissioned by Blackpool Council as part of the multi-million-pound regeneration of the seafront including vital sea-defence works.- Referring to the work of more than 1,000 comedians and comedy writers, the carpet gives visual form to jokes, songs and catchphrases dating from the early days of variety to the present - National o Blackpool Tower- 1894- were Strictly is o Bhaji on the Beach 1993- BP seen as a form of escapism from racial and sexist discrimination  Made by British film company - TNCs o 2010- (present connections) o Merlin Entertainment take son operations for Blackpool attractions including the Tower in partnership with the council o 2010- Blackpool tower eye opens o 2011- Blackpool Dungeon open o 2023- Gruffalo and Friends clubhouse opens (also has a Peter Rabbit attraction) o Madame Tussauds o Blackpool o Tower eye o Blackpool Towe circus o Blackpool tower ballroom - Globa institution o Blackpool piers are all in the World’s monuments watch list

Answer 136

Past - Was one of the UK’s mass tourist destinations - 3x as many visitors as its rivals - Visitors peaked at 17 million - Between 1979 and 88- lost 39 million visitor nights Present - Visitor numbers fell from 17 million to 11 million in 2000 - overly reliant on tourism and had no alternative industry - now known for stag does and hen does – downmarket drift to young people who spend less / de-multiplier effect - Blackpool is the largest seaside resort anywhere in Europe, attracting round 17 million visitors annually who spend a huge £545 million a year. This tourism provides over 29,000 people with employment Evidence of external forces - National gov o Workers given annual holidays in the 1870s o Regeneration – government announced in 2022 a levelling up investment of £300 million for Blackpool Central- just off famous Golden Mile  Will create 1000 jobs and attract 600 000 more visitors each year – massive boost to local economy . boost annual spend in the town by around 75m  Blackpool Central will be the largest single investment in Blackpool for over a century – transform into a year round leisure destination, home to new entertainment centres hotels and a new public square and Heritage Quarter o Previous intervention by the government includes cracking down on rogue landlords, finding new opportunities for regeneration and delivering new homes and jobs for the community - TNCs o Merlin entertainment leads partnership to create job opportunities for young people in Blackpool- provides placements over summer and autumn tourism season - 6 months placements . Receive industry linked NVQ training and a one to one kickstart coach to support them find their next job  Linked with the council and Blackpool and The Fylde college o Budget airlines /package holidays reduced visitors and impacted the tourism sector – which Blackpool was reliant on q o Foreign travel grew in 1960s and 70s – more reliable sunny

Answer 137

Now - Insider perspective o ‘nothing ever gets fixed’,’ little opportunities for children’ - Outsider o ‘best avoided’, ‘overpriced’’ past its sell by date’ o Seen as place to go on holiday if you couldn’t afford better o ‘I think it is improving slowly’ o There are 800 homeless in Blackpool this group may feel like outsiders due to their extreme poverty that limits them from taking in the fundamental cultural activities in Blackpool such as going to the pleasure beach – entry can be £40 +) and theme parks o Also only 3% ethnic monitories , compared to 88% who were born in the UK Evidence of external forces - Local o Beside campaign – see the B side of the seaside – aim to change visitor perceptions and expectations of Blackpool and urging them to explore other areas not just the beach – explore arts, architecture, music, exhibitions - 4 years after unveiling £100 million improvements, a new plan called Destination Blackpool aims to tackle the ‘deep-rooted negative perceptions of the town’ - The resort wants to become a quality year-round place for families- like the Lakes- once it shrugs off its bawdy stag and hen party reputation - National o BBC- Strictly represented Blackpool Tower ballroom – - Gov o Regeneration o -heritage quarter- reimaging but going back to positive past place meanings o -The Grade II Listed former King Edward VII Picture House will be transformed into a new ‘Artisan Food Hall’, which spills out onto new outdoor space for ‘al fresco’ dining. o -The locally listed King Edward VII pub will be refurbished into a new pub and hotel, creating a modern, family friendly environment offering quality food and beverages. o -The King Edward VII apartment building will be renovated into a high-quality ‘Aparthotel’ keeping its original character.

Answer 138

Census - Blackpool’s population has decreased since 1961 – 1530 00 to 141,100 in 2021- decrease in the popularity of the town and suggest increasing social problems have pushed people out - Also shows deprivation - 2011- 9.2% of the population was unemployment and now in 2021- 6.2% unemployment (national UK average- 3.8%)- decrease in unemployment , perhaps showing how the £300 million rejuvenation is combating economic problems in Blackpool/ providing jobs - (though census data can be fed lies and manipulation by the public , some may also not have filled it out and this can make a narrow set of results) IMAD - 39/94 LSOAs are in 10% most deprived

Answer 139

Shift of people - When it was going through the Butler’s tourist model, tourist numbers rose, stagnate and then decline - When people started to leave/ go on holiday abroad, money left too , less revenue in tourism sector - However 2010- Merlin Entertainment began investing in attractions - Government invested in regeneration schemes Shift of ideas - Going abroad/ budget holiday, idea of self catering etc.. appealing – sunny European holidays Essays To what extent has the character of the place been affected by external agencies - Budget airlines and companies that offer package holidays o Introduced cheap air travel in the 1960s and changed Blackpool’s character o Tourists now attracted to better climates o Led to BP to stagnate and decline – 2000- 17 million to 11 million  Became a place of hen and stag does – attracting younger people who spent less – cases accommodation to be abandoned - However, this external agency did not remove Blackpool deep seaside culture and the end factor that it is a coastal town . It is still one of the most visited seaside resorts in the UK

Answer 140

Media o -Positive o Bhaji on the Beach 1994- BP seen as a form of escapism from racial and sexist discrimination o Strictly o Coronation street o Negatively o - Music o ‘h blackpoll song’ - Art o Comedy carpet – one of the largest public art ever commissioned

Answer 141

15 000 form unique reservoir which supports perennial rivers - lifelines to many S.Asian countries

Answer 142

13km undergound at Kola Peninsual in Northern Russia -hot mineralised water found

Answer 143

found a resviour of water ine artsh mantle 3x as big as all the world oceans - thos suppots th theory that oceans oozedo ut of th einterior ratherthan arrving from ice comets in space - help in a layer of rock between upper and lowe rmantl ecalled ringwoodite also thought to have large masses of water under volcanoes- eg. Uturunco, Bolviia

Answer 144

groundwater shallow - 100-200 yrs groundwater deep- 10 000 yrs Lakes- 50-100 yrs Glaciers- 20-100 yrs Rivers- 2-6 months Soil water -1 to 2 months seasonal snow cover -2-6 months

Answer 145

400 000 yrs old

Answer 146

740 000 yrs, 8

Answer 147

. Studies show that forests made up of needle-leaf trees captured 22 per cent of the rainfall, while broad-leaf deciduous forests intercepted 19 per cent. This difference may be due to the density of the vegetation cover rather than the structure of the leaves. Some tropical rainforests intercept as much as 58 per cent of the rainfall

Answer 148

The pores in a clay soil account for 40 to 60 per cent of the volume. In fine sand this can be 20 to 45 per cent

Answer 149

There is a net transport of 40 units from ocean to land with about the same amount returning by the rivers to the ocean (Figure 1.16, page 14). However, the amount of precipitation over the continents is almost three times as high as the net transport, indicating a considerable recirculation of water over land. This recirculation has a marked annual cycle as well as having large variations between continents. The recirculation is larger during the summer and for tropical land areas. The hydrological cycle of the world’s oceans interacts differently with that of the continents. ● Most of the water from the Pacific Ocean recirculates between different parts of the Pacific itself and there is little net transport towards land. ● The pattern of water exchange between ocean and land is different in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. ● Two-thirds of the total net transport of water towards the continents comes from the Atlantic Ocean, with the rest from the Indian Ocean. ● Most of the continental water for North and South America, Europe and Africa emanates from the Atlantic and is also returned to the Atlantic by rivers.

Answer 150

limestone- 53cm per hr sandstone- 200cm per hr Unconsolidate dgavel - 20 000cm per hour

Answer 151

The UK has a dense gauging station network of around 1,500 measuring stations supported by secondary and temporary monitoring sites (Figure 1.21). Such a large number is needed because the UK contains a multiplicity of mostly small river basins and is diverse in terms of its climate, topography, geology, land use and patterns of water usage

Answer 152

much of the upper basin cleared for pasture and grazing ditches dug to drian land imperable mudstonesin upper basin rainfall highest in western upland pars and in east high temp and evapotranspiration often flooding in Hereford runoff higher in winter when rainfall is high and evaportranspiration low

Answer 153

50% of London front gardens paved over - 36% increase over 10 years

Answer 154

2015-2016- winter serious floods in UK Lake D- flashy- steep slopes, staturated soill, devatsed villages like Glenridding Yorkshire- subdued- water worked its way dwon tribuatires and into the River Ouse

Answer 155

o A study by Ohio State University demonstrated that for every dollar spent on drainage the grower got back between $1.20 and $1.90 when growing corn and soybeans.

Answer 156

o Dry topsoil subject to wind erosion – 0.1 to 2 tonnes/ha a year – arable fields in East Midlands and East Anglia

Answer 157

Studies have shown that there is little effect with less than 20 per cent of a basin deforested but a large increase with 50 to 100 per cent of a basin deforested. These changes occur at the local scale, but rivers of all sizes are affected when deforestation is extensive

Answer 158

Tropical South America contains the world’s largest continuous tropical forest and savanna ecosystems. This region is environmentally important not only because of traditional ecological measures, such as its high biodiversity, but also because it generates more than a quarter of the world’s river discharge. It has undergone explosive development and deforestation in the last 50 years as national and international demand for cattle feed (mostly soy), beef and sugar cane for ethanol has increased. Already over 10 per cent of the rainforest in this large region has been converted to cattle pasture and agriculture.

Answer 159

- Texas o Water table dropped by 50m in just 50 years - Middle East o Abstracted from aquifers – rate of recharge is far slower than rate of use o Gaza strip  90% of absratced water is unfit for drinking  1.4 million people depend on this water  70% of pop face water shortage  Kindey failure and gum disease are common

Answer 160

This saline intrusion is widespread along the Mediterranean coastlines of Italy, Spain and Turkey, where the demands of tourist resorts are the major cause of over-abstraction. In Malta, most groundwater can no longer be used for domestic consumption or irrigation because of saline intrusion, and the country has resorted to expensive desalination plants. In Italy, overexploitation of the Po River in the region of the Milan aquifer has led to a 25−40 m decrease in groundwater levels over the last 80 years. In Spain, more than half of the abstracted groundwater volume is obtained from areas facing overexploitation problems. the Greek Argolid plain of eastern Peloponnesus where it is common to find boreholes 400m deep contaminated by seawater intrusion

Answer 161

o The chalk acqufier of S England is replenished by rainfall on chalk hills of the north and southd owns and the CHiltenr s o Recharge take splace in winter, when EVT is low and soil moitusre deicits are ngilible o Grounwater varies seasonally – rises in authum through winter into spring o In summer, EVT exceeds rainfall , soil mosture deficit build up o Summer - Leaves chalk via springs as weel as broeholes o If there are one or more dry winters when the effective rainfall available for recharge is low then these rivers can dry up altogether. o Chalk provides high quality groundwater for public supply o It has reduced flow in many chalk streams and ins ome cases drie dup sections – economic impact- inability to fish, enhour views—recreational acitvites

Answer 162

o Chalk layer under London o 19th and 20th century – acqufiers exploited – increase industrialisaiton and development of grounwater se=ources o 1960s – peak asbtratcion – grounwater levels drooped by 88m below sea level – created a large depression in the eater table o Since 1960s, industries have relocted or shut down – economic activity now sevric eindsytries and commerce rather than heavy indsyry – recovering of the groundwater by 2m a yea rin the early 1990s – graudla rebound of the water table o Rising grounwater – threat to Lodon Ungeround and its building foudnings o Created the GARDIT – Generla Acifier reserahc developlemt and investigation team – control wat levels

Answer 163

- According to the Environment Agency, the differences in groundwater levels for January 2000 and January 2018 are: o Groundwater levels have risen in the order of 8–15 m across north London, due to limited abstraction. They have levelled off in recent years. o In east London, groundwater levels have fallen in the order of 10 m as a result of increased abstraction. o In south-west and south-central London, groundwater levels have fallen in the order of 2–5 m, also as a result of increased abstraction. o In east London, where there are chalk outcrops around the River Thames from Greenwich to Woolwich, there is a risk of saline intrusion. When groundwater levels near the river are lower than the water level in the River Thames, saline river water can enter the chalk aquifer

Answer 164

* Globally - we withdraw 8% of annual freshwater runoff for our own use. The other 92% makes it back to the oceans * Of this 8% we take- 70% is returned to the water cycle through evaporation. The remainder is returned via rivers as partially degraded water. * Of this 8% we use 7% of it for irrigation, 0.8% for industry and 0.2% for domestic use.

Answer 165

for the first time in human history, and probably the first time in the last 2.5 million years, atmospheric levels of CO2 exceeded 400ppm

Answer 166

270ppm (and had been consistently been at that level for the last 10 000 years of warm climate since the end of the last ice age

Answer 167

make 10 million different carbon compounds on earth, found in all life forms, in sedimentary rocks, diamonds, graphite, coal, oil and gas

Answer 168

it is the complex processes carbon undergoes as it is transformed from organic carbon to inorganic carbon and back again

Answer 169

CO2 (atmosphere, soil, and oceans) CH4 ('' '' and sedimentary rocks) Calcium carbonate (a solid compound found in calcareous rocks, oceans and in skeletons and shells of ocean creatures) Hydrocarbons Bio-molecules (proteins, carbohydrates etc.. DNA)

Answer 170

Earth's interior/mantle

Answer 171

- escapes the mantle at plate boundaries and at hotspot volcanoes (much of the co2 released at destructive margins derived from the metamorphism of carbonate rocks subducting with the ocean crust. -some CO2 remains in the atmosphere, oceans absorb some, some held in biomass, some in carbonate rocks. - carbon is moved into long-term storage by the burial of sedimentary rock layers, (coal, black shales- these store organic carbon from undecayed biomass) and carbonate rocks like limestone)

Answer 172

GtC- Gigatonnes of Carbon

Answer 173

lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere biosphere, atmosphere.

Answer 174

e.g. distribution of land and sea – profound impact on the carbon stores, such as oceans, soils and rocks Fossil fuels are only found in certain parts of the world – where industrial production is concentrated and has high carbon emissions

Answer 175

The amount of carbon held in each store is subject to change over timescales ranging from a few minutes to millions of years.

Answer 176

uses gigatonne of carbon equivalent (GtC) and gigatonne of carbon equivalent per year (GtCy-1)

Answer 177

includes the crust, and the uppermost mantle, this constitutes the hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth Carbon is stored in both inorganic and organic forms

Answer 178

-litter, organic matter in soils (1500 GtC) - peat (dead but undecayed organic matter in boggy areas) 250 GtC

Answer 179

- fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, oil shale (4100 GtC) -carbonate based sedimentary deposits like limestone and marine sediments (100 million GtC)

Answer 180

Oceans/ water bodies- lakes, river etc...

Answer 181

-surface layer- euphotic/epipelagic zone- where sunlight penetrates so that photosynthesis can take place, contains approx 900 GtC -the intermediate (twilight zone/ mesopelagic) and the deep layer of water contains approx 37100 GtC -Living organic matter amounts to approx 30 GtC and dissolved organic matter 700 GtC - sedimentary layer(up to 100 million GtC) -60x amount of carbon in ocean than atmoshphere - deep ocean has already absorbed 25% of anthrogepnic emissions

Answer 182

- 37 000 GtC to 40 000 GtC

Answer 183

When organisms die, their dead cells, shells and other parts sink into deep water. Decay releases carbon dioxide into this deep water. Some material sinks right to the bottom, where it forms layers of carbon-rich sediments. Over millions of years, chemical and physical processes may turn these sediments into rocks

Answer 184

Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have reached very high values in the deep past, possibly topping over 7,000 ppm (parts per million) in the Cambrian period around 500 million years ago. Its lowest concentration has probably been over the last two million years during the Quaternary glaciation when it sank to about 180 ppm.

Answer 185

280 ppm to 317.7 ppm in March 1958 to 416.2 ppm as of May 2020 (0.04%)

Answer 186

It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating

Answer 187

10th May 2013

Answer 188

due to human activities, CO2 in the atmosphere is higher than it has been for at least the last 800 000 years (if not past 20 million years)

Answer 189

A potent greenhouse gas, regulates Earth's temperature -> due to increasing industrial emission-> global warming

Answer 190

Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii (part of NOAA)- argues that the rise in CO2 due to anthropogenic sources (particularly fossils fuels, and deforestation)

Answer 191

gathered evidence that linked fossil fuels emissions to rising levels of CO2, since been backed by others (e.g. through ice cores)

Answer 192

(see picture on notes). Line graph showing atmospheric CO2 vs ppm

Answer 193

Living vegetation (19%), Plant litter, Soil humus, Peat, Animals

Answer 194

carbon stored directly in the tissues of the plants and root systems. Carbon in biomass varies between 35-65% of the dry weight- varies depending on location and vegetation type (more carbon in forests at high altitude (1/2) than low altitude (1/3rd)

Answer 195

The vast expanses of boreal forest in Russia (25% of the world's forest carbon), and Amazon Basin (20%)

Answer 196

defined as fresh, undecomposed, and easily recognisable (by species and type) plant debris. Type of litter depends on type of ecosystems -leaf tissues account for 70% of litter in forests -but wooddy litter increases with forest age, --in grasslands - very little above ground perennial tissue so the annual fall of litter is low.

Answer 197

Humus is a thick brown/black substance that remains after most of the organic litter has decomposed. - it gets dispersed throughout the soil by soil organisms such as earthworms.

Answer 198

2500 GtC (which is more than living vegetation and animals, and 3.1 times larger than the atmospheric pool of 800 GtC). Only Ocean has a larger carbon store.

Answer 199

Accumulation of partially decayed organic matter in an anaerobic marsh/wetland environment- almost permanent water saturation obstructs flows of oxygen into the ground. Anaerobic conditions slow down the rate of plant litter decomposition

Answer 200

4 million, 3%

Answer 201

All continents, from tropical to boreal and Arctic zones and from sea level to high alpine conditions

Answer 202

250 GtC worldwide

Answer 203

these play a small role in the storage of carbon- but very important generation of movement of carbon through the carbon cycle

Answer 204

Some regions of the world (the Sahara Desert) have virtually no plant storage. Others have flourishing veg growth and production. Carbon uptake is increasing in the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, but less carbon is being absorbed in the tropics and southern hemisphere- a major cause of this decrease is thought to be drought - possibly linked to climate change-, impacting crop yields, timber production and expanses of natural vegetation.

Answer 205

the total biomass fixed in an ecosystem per unit area, per year. It is measured as a change in mass of carbon per unit area per year ( gC/m²/yr ) Though NPP could also be viewed as a carbon flux because it is the rate of carbon being fixed into the ecosystem These patterns are based on the environment being controlled by purely natural climatic and ecological processes

Answer 206

amount of carbon exchanged between Earth’s carbon pools - If more carbon enters a store than leaves it, that store is considered a net carbon sink. - If more carbon leaves a store than enters it, that store is considered a net carbon source The geological component of carbon cycle

Answer 207

- Where it interacts with the rock cycle in the process of weathering, burial , subduction, and volcanic eruption - CO2 removed from the atmosphere by dissolving it in water and forming carbonic acid - This reaches the surface as rain and react with minerals, dissolving them in chemical weathering – see later - Calcium carbonate also prepared from calcium and bicarbonate ions in seas water by marine organisms like foraminifera, coccoliths or mollusc – when they die , there skeletons sink and from sedimentary rocks - Coral also extract calcium carbonate from seawater . They die and dead coral is built upon by later generation of live coral and so it too become buried - Tectonic uplift can them expose buried sedimentary rocks - E.g. Himalayas – where highest peaks are formed of material that was once at the bottom of oceans - Tectonic force cause plate movement to push the sea floor under continental margins- subduction - The carbonaceous sea floor despots are pushed eep into earth where they rise back to the surface through volcanic eruptions or in seeps, vents and CO2 rich hot springs - CO2 returns to atmosphere - some CO2 remains in the atmosphere, oceans absorb some, some held in biomass, some in carbonate rocks - carbon is moved into long term storage by the burial of sedimentary rock layers – store organic carbon from undecayed biomass (coal, black shales) and carbonate rocks like limestone - SEE HOW WEATHERING, BURIAL, SUBDUCTION AND VOLCANISM CONTROL ATMOSPHERIC CO2 OVERTIME

Answer 208

- Rock exposed after glacial retreat – vulnerable to weathering – carbon released - Over time, veg such as lichen and moss grown on the bare rock and carbon exchange begins – photosynthesis and respiration - As organic matter is added to the broken fragments of rock – a soil develops – can support a wider range of plants – stores and absorbs carbon - Plant species become more divers e- better supply of carbon , habitats established and wildlife abundant - Climatic climax - deciduous woodland A succession that relates to a specific environment is a sere, each stage of succession is referred to as a seral stage A lithosere is a succession on bare rock. Hydrosere – freshwater pond/water, halosere – coastal salt marsh, and psammoseres – sand dunes Eventually, the final stage of a sere is reaches when a state of environmental equilibrium or balance is achieved – Climtaic climax

Answer 209

Long term carbon cycle – thousands of years - Atmosphere has co2 , combines with water vapour to make carbonic acid in rainfall, reacts with minerals in rock causes chemical weathering - Some carbon released back to the atmosphere, but some move into the hydrosphere int o the ocean - Oceans also absorb carbon directly from the atmosphere - Once in the ocean, carbon goes into marine creatures, sink to the sea floor- create sedimentary rocks like limestone, heat and pressure converts sediment into fossil fuels - SEQUESTRATION (liquid to solid of carbon) - Earth is tectonically active – sea floor moves to destructive plate boundaries, where it is subducted , carbon in ricks is released and rushes back to the surface and returns via volcanic eruptions - Relaes 200 million tonnes of CO2 back into the amtoshphere – completely the long cabron cycle

Answer 210

Moves 100 – 1000 x more carbon than other cycles and is much faster - This is unique to earth – as it works through the biosphere - Plants are primary producer organisms - Energy from to sun to convert into carbohydrates - Animals breakdown carbohydrates to release energy and carbon dioxide through respiration and methane as they digest their food - Decomposition – carbon back into the oil in hummus - Fire /combustion, releases carbon back into the atmosphere - Processes, photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, combustion - 100 000 000 -> 100 000 000 000 metric tonnes of CO2 moves in the cycle - Peat stops plants decomposing and a lot of co2 is in the peat – will peat keep storing carbon dioxide at a quicker rate than carbohydrates are broken down by decomposers

Answer 211

- Plants* use the light energy (absorbed via chlorophyll) from the sun to convert CO2 in air and water in soil to produce carbohydrates in the form of glucose - Some glucose used in respiration, the rest is converted into starch - CARBON DIOXIDE +WATER +LIGHT ENERGY= GLUCOSE +OXYGEN - *Ocean – phytoplankton in the euphotic zone - *Terrestrial plants – photosynthesis algae and bacteria

Answer 212

- Glucose converted into energy that can be used for growth and repair, movement and control of body temperature in mammals – carbon dioxide returned to atmosphere - GLUCOSE +OXYGEN = CARBON DIOXIDE +WATER+ENERGY - Some carbohydrates remain in the biomass – animals and bacteria eat this and get their energy - Photosynthesis and respiration essentially opposites but not in balance . Not all organic matter is oxidised – some is buried in sedimentary rocks. Overall, more oxygen has been released into the atmosphere by photosynthesis than CO2 released by respiration

Answer 213

- Includes physical, chemical and biological mechanism that transform organic matter into increasingly stable forms - Physical mechanisms o Animals, wind erosion, other plants, leaching, marine erosion – all lead to fragmentation - Biological mechanisms o involve feeding and digestion aided by the catalytic effect of enzymes. - Chemical mechanisms o Oxidation and condensation - The decomposition process o When organisms die they are consumed by decomposers – bacteria, fungi and earthworms o break down large biomolecules into smaller ones o During this process, carbon from their bodies is returned to the atmosphere as CO2 o Some organic material passes into the soil (pedosphere) where it may be stored for hundred of years and sustains the producers - Decomposition ensures that the important elements of life – C, H, O, N, phosphorus, S, Mg – can be continually recycled into the soil and made available for life. - e.g, a plant cannot make its DNA molecules unless it has a supply of N, phosphorus and S atoms from the soil in addition to the carbon, H and O atoms it obtains through photosynthesis. For this reason, plant growth is limited by the availability of N, phosphorus, Mg and S atoms in addition to the availability of CO2, water and light energy

Answer 214

- when organic material (any veg or fossil fuels) is burned in the presence of oxygen - converted into energy, C02, H20 - The carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, returning carbon that might have been stored in rocks for millions of years. - Biomass combustion – burning of living and dead vegetation - Includes human induced burning and natural occurring fires

Answer 215

- Where organic matter (shells and corals- made from calcium carbonate) is buried by sediments and becomes compacted - Over millions of years, the organic sediments containing carbon may form hydrocarbons- such as oil and coal

Answer 216

- The process of carbon sequestration involves capturing CO2 from the atmosphere and putting it into long-term storage. - There are two primary types of sequestration – geologic and terrestrial or biologic. - involves the technological capturing of up to 90% of the CO emissions produced from the use of fossils fuels in electricity generation and industrial processes - Many in the US, from 2020, CCS in Rotterdam chemical plants and oil refiners in the North Sea seabed

Answer 217

o CO2 captured at the source- e.g. power planet, and injected in liquid form into stores underground – deplete oil and gas reservoirs , uneconomic coal seams, deep salt formations, deep ocean o The ocean is very capable of absorbing much more additional carbon than terrestrial systems simply because of its sheer size. An advantage of ocean carbon sequestration is that the carbon sequestered is quite literally ‘sunk’ within weeks or months of being captured from the air/water. Once in the deep ocean it is in a circulation system commonly measured in thousands of years. By the time this carbon reaches the seabed it has entered the Earth’s geological cycle.

Answer 218

o Involves using plants to capture CO2 from the atmosphere and then store it as carbon in stems and roots of plants as well as in the soil o The aim is to develop a set of land management practices that maximises the amount of carbon that remains stored in the soil and in plant material for the long term. Most authorities also believe that the enrichment of plant ecosystems is a positive environmental action with many associated benefits, including the enrichment of wildlife. There are disadvantages to terrestrial sequestration:  For instance, a forest planted to capture carbon might lose that carbon back to the air in a catastrophic forest fire or if the forest suffers disease or infestation.  Land-based sequestration plantations are slow growing and require active monitoring and management for the lifetime of the plantation, usually many decades.  The carbon within those systems is never removed permanently from the atmospheric system

Answer 219

- Warmer oceans dissolve less CO2, colder oceans more - This leads to vertical deep mixing , a warm water in ocean surface currents is carried from the warm tropics to the cold polar regions – water called, dense, sinks- gains CO2. When cold water returns to surface and warms, it loses CO2 to amoshpere - Vertical circulation ensure sthat CO2 is constantly exchanged between ocean and the atmshere – it acts an an enormous carbon pimp – giving the ocean a lot more cabron than it would have if this surface water was not ebing constantly replenished

Answer 220

o Living things in ocean move carbon from atmpshere into surface water than to deeper ocean and eventually into rocks – biological pump o When organisms die, their dead cells, shells and other parts sink into deep water. Decay releases carbon dioxide into this deep water. o Some material sinks right to the bottom, where it forms layers of carbon-rich sediments. o Over millions of years, chemical and physical process turn them into rocks – locks up carbon for million so years

Answer 221

- 1)Latitude – colder water more readily dissolves CO2 - 2)Ocean currents – thermohaline circulation and ‘global conveyor’ distorts Latitudinal pattern. - 3)Extent of sea ice in Arctic and Southern Ocean limits capacity of liquid water to dissolve atmospheric CO2

Answer 222

- Weathering involves breakdown or decay or rocks in situ - Chemical weathering o When carbon is absorbed by rainwater it forms midly acidic carbonic acid o Through a series of complex chemical reactions, rocks with dissolve with the carbonic acid to build shells of marine organism s (calcium carbonate) - CO2+H20= H2CO3 (carbonic acid) - Limestone +carbonic acid= calcium bicarbonate

Answer 223

- Carbon cycle has changed throughout the billion so years of earth’s history - Carbon, like water, is subject to significant levels of change over time and space. Although carbon may be stored deep within the Earth's crust for millions of years, in other contexts it can be transferred in a matter of seconds from one store to another, say during a wildfire. - It is certain that 100 million years ago carbon dioxide values were many times higher than now though the exact value is in doubt. Five hundred million years ago atmospheric CO2 was some 20 times higher than present values. It dropped, then rose again 200 million years ago to a maximum of four to five times present levels. It then followed a slow decline until recent preindustrial time. - Carbon within the carbon cycle is in a constant state of flux, undergoing changes in magnitudes at all scales and in all time frames. - There are many reasons, both physical and human, why these changes take place

Answer 224

It is certain that 100 million years ago carbon dioxide values were many times higher than now though the exact value is in doubt. Five hundred million years ago atmospheric CO2 was some 20 times higher than present values. It dropped, then rose again 200 million years ago to a maximum of four to five times present levels. It then followed a slow decline until recent preindustrial time.

Answer 225

- Quaternary geological period (2.6 million to now) global climates had fluctuated between interglacial and glacial - We know temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels during the last 800 000 years due to ice cores in Antarctic ice sheet - Higher temperatures associated with higher levels of CO2 o Increase in CO2 leads to enhanced global warming and a subsequent temp increase o Lower CO2 reduces effectiveness of the greenhouse effect, which leads to global cooling o Carbon dioxide levels trigger temperature change o But temp change also has an impact on CO2

Answer 226

o Chemical weathering more active as cold water holds more OC2 o Forest coverage reduced – colder- less photosystems and respiration o Decomposers less effective, so carbon transfer to soils reduced o Less water flowed into oceans as it is locked up as snow and ice – less sediment transfer along rivers and less buildup of sediments on ocean floor o Soil would have been frozen- stopping transfers of carbon

Answer 227

o Melting of permafrost in tundra regions (e.g. Siberia, Russia) o Carbon stored in permafrost now released into atmosphere – enhances greenhouse effect – increased warming (also methane)- positive feedback and further destabilization of the system

Answer 228

- 11 year solar cycle, sunspots peak every 11 years – know from ice earth and sun at its hottests - Because although the spots are cooler, they’re accompanied by hotter, brighter patches called faculae. - These cause the overall brightness of the sun to increase by 0.1% at visible wavelengths, and more at UV wavelengths

Answer 229

Causal Link between CO2 and temperature in explaining glacial cycles - Time delay between temp change and change in CO2 - Long term trigger is Milankovitch Cycles - Eccentricity o If the Earth’s orbit is more circular then the seasonal difference is not as great and this results in a cooler planet. o Elliptical orbit of the Earth creates more seasonal variations and this leads to climatic extremes of warming or cooling - These regular cycles of orbital eccentricity cause slight variations in the amount of the sun's radiation that warms up the Earth. So, as temperatures start to rise at the end of a glacial period (triggered by orbital change), there is a surge of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by the warming of the oceans and the unlocking of the land surface that had previously been frozen. This surge of carbon dioxide enhances the greenhouse effect, amplifying the warming trend. This is an excellent example of a positive feedback - Precession and axil tilt o The greater the precession (wobble) and axial tilt the greater the climatic extreme of hot or cold

Answer 230

- Temp change during trnasiton from last glacial period to current inter glcial period - Found that o * the Earth's orbital cycles triggered warming in the Arctic approximately 19000 years ago, causing large amounts of ice to melt, flooding the oceans with fresh water o * this influx of fresh water then disrupted ocean current circulation, in turn causing a see-sawing of heat between the hemispheres o * the southern hemisphere and its oceans warmed first, starting about 18000 years ago. - As the Southern Ocean warmed, the solubility of carbon dioxide in the water fell and this causes the oceans to give up more carbon dioxide, releasing it into the atmosphere. - So, there is evidence to suggest that orbital cycles triggered the initial warming at the end of the last glacial period leading to a surge in carbon dioxide emissions, which in turn amplified the warming trend. Overall, scientists believe that more than 90 per cent of the post-glacial warming occurred after the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Answer 231

- Considerable debate over the Milankovtich cycles - Reliability etc.. - Whatever the causes of climate change in the past, there is little doubt among the scientific community that the current high levels of carbon dioxide are the result of anthropogenic (human) factors and that this is causing the recent rise in global temperatures

Answer 232

Wildfires - Each year , 4 million km 2 burned , releasing > 1 billion tonnes of CO2 - How? o Natural – lightening o Human – arson - Where? o Fires in boreal forests in Alaska, Canada, Russia, China and Scandinavia o Savanna grasslands and forests – Africa, Brazil and northern Australia o tropical forests in Brazil, Indonesia, Colombia, Ivory Coast, Thailand, Laos, Nigeria, Philippines, Myanmar and Peru o temperate forests in the US, western Europe and southern Australia o agricultural waste after harvests in the US and western Europe. - Fires and CO2 o Tree dies after severe firs, setting a new stage for new growth to begin o If a forest fully replaces itself, no net carbon change o Fires emit 10-20% of a forests carbon into atmosphere. But the fires kills trees not consumers them so they decompose, emitting carbon, new trees grow (store carbon) and the organic layer of soil accumulates (stores carbon) o Balance between new production and decomposition determines whether the forest is a net source or sink  Massive old growth northern latitude forests are considered a carbon sink because older trees hold more carbon and their heavy canopy blocks unlight from reaching the forest floor, slowing decomposition (and CO2 emissions) - Anthropogenic - fires made worse by warming temperatures and changing precipitation levels – affect carbon balance o Example fire – Indonesian wildfires 2013  Burned out of control for months  Smoke spread across parts of SE Asia, affecting millions  Releases large quantities of CO2  2015 air pollution crisis (SE Asian haze)- affected 28 million – widespread respiratory illness and some deaths  Started by illegal slash and burn practices – on Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan o Wildfires can turn forests from being a carbon sink to being a carbon source, as combustion returns huge quantities of carbon back into the atmosphere Zombie fire – are so powerful that when winter comes (snow falls) they don’ t go out, as under Canadian forest there is so much organic fuel, that they continue to burn underground. Surface temperatures of -20 2m deep of snow, smoke come sup through the snow – blueish grey snow (zombie)

Answer 233

- Each year , 4 million km 2 burned , releasing > 1 billion tonnes of CO2

Answer 234

 Burned out of control for months  Smoke spread across parts of SE Asia, affecting millions  Releases large quantities of CO2  2015 air pollution crisis (SE Asian haze)- affected 28 million – widespread respiratory illness and some deaths  Started by illegal slash and burn practices – on Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan

Answer 235

- Volcanic activity returns to the atmosphere carbon that has been trapped for millions of years in rocks deep within the Earth's crust - During the Palaeozoic era (542-251 million years ago) volcanoes were much more active than they are today-> vast amount of carbon dioxide was emitted into the atmosphere, where it remained for a very long time - Now, volcanoes emit between 130-380 million tonnes of CO2 a year - Compare with humans – 30 billion tonnes of CO2 - Volcanoes also erupt lava, which contains silicates that will slowly weather. This converts carbon dioxide in the air to carbonates in solution. In this way carbon dioxide is absorbed very. very slowly from the atmosphere. - Volcanic carbon emission have not caused a detectable global warming of atmosphere – CO2 emissions counterbalanced by sulphur dioxide that forms sulphuric acid which reflect radiation and cools the earth . Also very little emissions compared to human emissions

Answer 236

- Now, volcanoes emit between 130-380 million tonnes of CO2 a year

Answer 237

- Compare with humans – 30 billion tonnes of CO2

Answer 238

- Key example – April 1991, Mt Pinatubo eruption – particles reflected incoming solar radiation , average global temperatures decreased by a half a degree for 2 years

Answer 239

Human impact (including hydrocarbon fuel extraction and burning, farming practices, deforestation, land use changes). - IPPC- 90% of anthropogenic carbon release comes from combustion of fossil fuels – primarily coal - Remaining 10% from land use change – deforestation, land drainage and agricultural practises - Roughly half of the anthropogenic carbon is absorbed equally by oceans and vegetation and the remainder is absorbed by the atmosphere

Answer 240

- Hydrocarbon – H and C - Animal material tends to form petroleum – crude oil and plant material coal and natural gas - Extracted and them burnt and carbon dioxide and water is released into the atmosphere - Industrial evolution – burning increasing o dramatic increase since the 1950s, driven by the rapid industrialisation of developing nations (such as China) as well as the continued demand from the world's industrialised nations (such as the USA). - 2017-2018, global energy related CO2 emissions rose by 1.7% to an historic high of 33.1 GtC o Emissions from all fossil fuel burning increased, with electricity generation accounting for just over 60 per cent of this growth. o Coal burning (mainly in China, India and the USA) accounted for 10 GtC of CO2 and 85 per cent of the net increase in emissions. o There was a decline in Germany, Japan, Mexico, France and the United Kingdom as a result of increased use of renewable energy - Oil produces 20% less CO2 than coal in combustion , but other problems – oil spills etc.., Natural Gas 40% less than coal

Answer 241

- ¼ of greenhouse gas emission from agriculture and food productions - 44% of this in Asia, 25% America, 15% Africa, 12% Europe, 4% Oceania – this regional distribution has been constant over the last decade - For 1kg of Rice, 4kg of GG. For 1kg of Beef, 60kg of GG - Ploughing and harvesting, rearing livestock all use machinery fuelled by fossil fuels and fertilisers based on fossils fuels - Cattle o ruminate , which produces methane as a by product – should be less on dependant meat and dairy o US cattle emit 5.5 million tonnes of methane a year, 20% of all totale US methane emissions – a more potent GG than carbon dioxide o livestock account for 14.5 per cent of all anthropogenic emissions o the largest source of carbon emissions is enteric fermentation – where methane (CH4) is released by livestock following digestion - Rice o Rice also emit methane – may contribute to 20% of global methane production o Asia and N America – rice yields have increase dby 25% du to increase levels of CO2 in air – but 40% increase in methane emissions o Rice is the primary food source for 50 per cent of the world's population, mostly in developing regions, so this trend is likely to continue o greenhouse gases from rice paddies make up 10% per cent of total agricultural emissions, while the burning of tropical grasslands accounts for five per cent. - Soil o When soil is ploughed, the soil lwayer invert, air mixes in, soil microbial acitivyt increases – soil breaks down more rapidly and cabron is lsot from the soil into the amtoshpere . Also the farm tractors release CO2 o 1/3 of all soils are degraed – releasing 78 GtC - Example o Shambling Park Farm, Bury St Edmunds , Suffolk  645 ha farm, organic arable farm – specilaises in whaet , barley, oats etc.. and some grazinf sheep  Its carbon emissions 1150 tonnes – minaly from machinery and nitrous oxide from crop residneus and green manures  250 sheep -6.6% of emissions  40% of the carbon emission offset by cabron sequestration - Values for sequestration in the soil do not appear but this is likely to be a significant carbon sink. - In the future, the farm intends to raise the level of organic matter within the soils which will store even more carbon. - An increase of just 0.1 per cent in soil organic matter over the entire farm could increase the sequestration of carbon to a level of about 4500 tonnes CO, four times greater than the emissions!

Answer 242

o Shambling Park Farm, Bury St Edmunds , Suffolk  645 ha farm, organic arable farm – specilaises in whaet , barley, oats etc.. and some grazinf sheep  Its carbon emissions 1150 tonnes – minaly from machinery and nitrous oxide from crop residneus and green manures  250 sheep -6.6% of emissions  40% of the carbon emission offset by cabron sequestration - Values for sequestration in the soil do not appear but this is likely to be a significant carbon sink. - In the future, the farm intends to raise the level of organic matter within the soils which will store even more carbon. - An increase of just 0.1 per cent in soil organic matter over the entire farm could increase the sequestration of carbon to a level of about 4500 tonnes CO,, four times greater than the emissions!

Answer 243

- Responsible for 10% of carbon emissions - Impacts on relatively short term stores and has direct links to CC and GW - at the local scale, land-use changes can have a very significant impact on small-scale carbon cycles. - CO2 emissions that result from land use change (mainly deforestation) account for up to 30 per cent of anthropogenic CO2 emissions

Answer 244

- Stats o - every second, a forest the size of a football pitch destroyed , an area the size of Italy a year o FAO states that an area the size of Greece of the world’s forests are converted to other land uses per year. - Trees are removed either by burning or felling, for building, ranching, mining, commercial crops – oil, palm and soya - Timber itself is a valuable production in furniture etc.. – fire wood - When forests are cleared for conversion a large proportion of the above-ground biomass may be burned, rapidly releasing most of its carbon into the atmosphere. Forest clearing also accelerates the decay of dead wood, litter and below-ground organic carbon- soil holds less CO2 o Unlike when a tree dies and decomposes solowley burning a tree releases cabron imeddialty - Concentrated in tropic regions – Indonesia - 20% of all carbon emissions - So the tropical area has now became a source of carbon rather than a sink - Who is doing this? o Subsistence farmes – slash and burn o Logging operation – build access roads which leads to further deforestation o Housing/urban sprawl o Unintential – wildfires and subsequent overgaxing- prevnt new trees - AFFORESTATION- The loss caused by deforestation in the tropics is being more than compensated for by reforestation in temperate areas, particularly agricultural regions in Asia. The long-term outcome could be a complete loss of rainforest but an increase in temperate forest on former natural grasslands- Uni of Maryland and NASA 2018 satellite technology

Answer 245

Stats o - every second, a forest the size of a football pitch destroyed , an area the size of Italy a year o FAO states that an area the size of Greece of the world’s forests are converted to other land uses per year.

Answer 246

- Replacing open countryside with concrete and tarmac is known as urbanisation - Half the world population live in urban areas. 60% by 2030. Growing at a rate of 1.3 million a week - Significant impact on global carbon scale – importance stores are either replaced (vegetation) or covered up (soil) with impermeable surfaces - Globally- urban areas occupy 2% of land area but account for 97% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions - In 2019, according to the UN Community Programme, urban areas were estimated to be responsible for around 75 per cent of global total carbon emissions. - How? o Transport o Industry o Conversion of land from natural to urban o Domestic use – food, timber, energy , waste o Cement production for the building sector

Answer 247

Half the world population live in urban areas. 60% by 2030. Growing at a rate of 1.3 million a week

Answer 248

urban areas occupy 2% of land area but account for 97% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions - In 2019, according to the UN Community Programme, urban areas were estimated to be responsible for around 75 per cent of global total carbon emissions.

Answer 249

contributes to the atmosphere when calcium carbonate is heated – produces lime and CO2. CO2 also released to provide heat for the cement manufacture process o Cement industry produces 5% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions , 50% from chemical process, 40% to provide heat to power process o For 1000 kg of cement, 900kg CO2 o It has been estimated that cement production contributes about 2.4 per cent of global carbon emissions (not including the use of fossil fuels), although this is highly concentrated

Answer 250

Cement industry produces 5% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions , 50% from chemical process, 40% to provide heat to power process o For 1000 kg of cement, 900kg CO2 o It has been estimated that cement production contributes about 2.4 per cent of global carbon emissions (not including the use of fossil fuels), although this is highly concentrated

Answer 251

- The two primary types of climate sensitivity are the shorter-term "transient climate response", the increase in global average temperature that is expected to have occurred at a time when the atmospheric CO2 concentration has doubled; and "equilibrium climate sensitivity", the higher long-term increase in global average temperature expected to occur after the effects of a doubled CO2 concentration have had time to reach a steady state.

Answer 252

- Uses data to describe the amount of carbon that is stored and transferred within the carbon cycle - Measured in petagrams Pg - Vast majority of carbon is stored in Earth’s crust and oceans - Low amounts of carbon in atmosphere and plants - This is because the carbon transfers are extremely active, with carbon constantly flowing back and forth between the atmosphere and the land. - The only way to calculate the effects of the changing levels of carbon is to build a computer model. A number of such models have been built over the years. They can have between 50 and 100 interacting equations describing all the different processes of the carbon cycle. The result of this is that models only predict possibilities, not probabilities.

Answer 253

- GG absorb long wave radiation from the Earth and warm the lower atmosphere – enabling life to exist on earth – the greenhouse effect - Recently- anthropogenic activities – burning fossil fuels and deforestation , increase GG, making them more effective in trapping radiation given off by earth – ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT- explains why avg global temperatures have increased by 08 degrees since 1880 - Regional impacts on climate o Regions with dense vegetation have experience high rates of photosynthesis and respiration – increased levels of humidity and amount of loud cover – affect regional temp and rainfall o Regions with widespread deforestation may become driers and less humid as fewer trees mean less photosystems - The proliferation of plankton in the oceans may promote the formation of clouds, through the creation of a chemical substance called dimethylsulphide (DMS). - Volcanic eruptions release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere along with ash and other gases. This absorbs more incoming radiation from the sun and can lead to a cooling effect on Earth sometimes called a volcanic winter.

Answer 254

- Unfortunately, because of the complex nature of the chemistry and biochemistry of the oceans and its inhabitants, many of the causative links to climate change are still not well understood. It is difficult to predict the precise rate, magnitude and direction of change of CO2 uptake and how that affects acidity, salinity, storminess and nutrient enrichment. It is even more difficult to map these effects at a local scale.

Answer 255

- become more acidic – since 1750, pH has dropped by 0.1 – 30% of atmospheric C02 dissolved into the ocean and formed carbonic acid - Impact of ocean acidification on ecosystems o Carbonic acid reacts with carbonate ions in water to form bicarbonate . o Animals need the CARBONATE ions too to create calcium carbonate shells o With less carbonate available, animals need to expend more energy to build their shells- thinner and more fragile o Loss of carbonate ions  loss of coral reefs (provide food and livelihood security for 500 million worldwide). * This fall in marine biodiversity threaten the survival of coastal communities -r educed food availability and reduced capacity of coastlines to buffer the impact of sea level rise – including increased storm surges  Coral reefs are carbon sinks o Polar and subpolar ecosystems may become so low in carbonate ions that the water may become corrosive to unprotected shells and skeletons of organisms o EXAMPLE- 2007 farmed oyster larvaeo off coast of Oregon and Washington USA, began dyin in million – losses directly linked to oceanaciditcition  Oyster crash led to a toll of the community – 2005-2009- loss of millions in sales  Evidence that the water help CO2 that was aborbed approx 30-50 years ago - A more optimistic viewpoint is that the more acidic seawater is, the better it dissolves calcium carbonate rocks (chalk and limestone). Over time this reaction will allow the ocean to soak up excess CO2 because the more acidic water will dissolve more rock, release more carbonate ions and increase the ocean’s capacity to absorb CO2.

Answer 256

- become more acidic – since 1750, pH has dropped by 0.1 – 30% of atmospheric C02 dissolved into the ocean and formed carbonic acid

Answer 257

 loss of coral reefs (provide food and livelihood security for 500 million worldwide).

Answer 258

o EXAMPLE- 2007 farmed oyster larvaeo off coast of Oregon and Washington USA, began dyin in million – losses directly linked to oceanaciditcition  Oyster crash led to a toll of the community – 2005-2009- loss of million sin sales  Evidence that the water help CO2 that was aborbed approx 30-50 years ago

Answer 259

- Warmer oceans, decrease abundance of phytoplankton which grow better in cool, rich waters- limits the ocean’s ability to take carbon from the atmosphere as a biological carbon pump – lessen the effectiveness of the oceans as a carbon sink - On the other hand, CO2 is essential for plant and phytoplankton growth. An increase in CO2 could increase their growth by fertilising those few species of phytoplankton and ocean plants (like sea grasses) that take carbon dioxide directly from the water. - Ocean warming also kills off the symbiotic algae which coral needs in order to grow, leading to bleaching and eventual death of reefs. o Symbiotic algae = zooxanthellae o 2016, bleaching of the coral on the great barrier reef killed 40% of its coral

Answer 260

- Retreat at 12.8% per decade over the last 35 years - Part of a feedback mechanism – highly reflective ice is replaced by more heat abrobeent water – albedo affect o Ocean absobs more sunlight, which in turn amplifies the wamring that cause it to melt in the first place - Sea ice also is a uniqey habitat for alego – loss of those ice bound alego affect amrine life across the food chain - Animals like polar bear need it to get their main food source – seals- and can no longer travel on it

Answer 261

- Retreat at 12.8% per decade over the last 35 years

Answer 262

- Decrease in salinity in deep N Atlantic – caused by higher levels of precipitation and higher temperatures – the result of increased atmospheric carbon - These higher temperatures are also causing melting of the Greenland ice sheet and many alpine glaciers. This too will lead to an increase in fresh water reaching the oceans. These changes have been linked to a possible slowing down of the large-scale oceanic circulation in the North-East Atlantic This in turn will have an effect on the climate of North West Europe.

Answer 263

- Sea levels have been rising at a rate of 3.1 mm a yar since the early 1990s - Higher atmospheric CO2 and temp rise has led to o Melting of terrestrial ice – increased in summer melting and drop in snowfall in shorter winters – imbalance means a net gain in water entering oceans from rivers against evaporation from the ocean . o This leads to antartica and Greenland ice sheets being lubricated at their basis and are moving quickly towards the oceans - Thermal expansion o When water warms, it epands. - If the Earth continues to warm up then we can expect the oceans to rise between 0.6 and 2.5 m by 2100. This is not an exact science and Figure 1.53 (page 40) shows a range of predictions for rising sea levels o

Answer 264

- If the Earth continues to warm up then we can expect the oceans to rise between 0.6 and 2.5 m by 2100. This is not an exact science and Figure 1.53 (page 40) shows a range of predictions for rising sea levels

Answer 265

- Sea levels have been rising at a rate of 3.1 mm a yar since the early 1990s

Answer 266

The impact of increasing atmospheric CO2 on the land has been subject to intense research. Unfortunately, the results are unclear because the study has, so far, been over a relatively short time period. This is coupled with the fact that there are so many other variables that could have an impact on the land and the atmosphere - Increased CO2 uptake by plants (25% of emissions removed from atmosphere since 1960) o – plants grow more quickly (if water and nutrients are available) – carbon fertilisation. o more CO2 available in atmosphere results in more photosynthesis and plant growth -> carbon fertilisation. Growth limits reached when water available and nutrient limits are reached o increase temperatures have warmed up the land in tundra areas warming of the land increases the rate of decay of accumulated dead organic matter leading to release of carbon dioxide methane etc o increase temperature have led to an increase in the length of the growing season more plant growth and higher evaporate transpiration rates require more water growth limited by water rate ability o Increased thawing of permafrost and release of Methane (CH4).  The National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimates that permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere holds between 1,460 and 1,600 GtC. If just 10 per cent of this permafrost were to thaw, it could release enough extra carbon dioxide to the atmosphere to raise temperatures an additional 0.7 °C by 2100.

Answer 267

- Increased CO2 uptake by plants (25% of emissions removed from atmosphere since 1960)

Answer 268

o Increased thawing of permafrost and release of Methane (CH4).  The National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimates that permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere holds between 1,460 and 1,600 GtC. If just 10 per cent of this permafrost were to thaw, it could release enough extra carbon dioxide to the atmosphere to raise temperatures an additional 0.7 °C by 2100.

Answer 269

o Agriculture has become more intensive more crops from less land increases carbon dioxide take up o Farmland in last used abandoned in the early 20th century farm and replaced by trees which store much more carbon than crops o More wildfires are extinguished leading to build up of carbon in deadwood. - Desertification and extension of arid lands o Though- methods to reverse it which the great green wall in Sahel

Answer 270

- Land and oceans take up most of the extra CO2 - But 20% stays in the atmsohpere for many thousands of years - Significance as CO2 is a GG that absorbed infred energy and re emit - Without greenhouse gases, the Earth would be a frozen −180°C. With too many greenhouse gases, the Earth would be like Venus, where the greenhouse atmosphere keeps temperatures around 400°C. - Enhanced greenhouse effect - This is where the extra CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are causing something called radiative forcing. o Radiative force – energy is constantly flwong into atmosphere as sunlight , 30% sunlight relftec back to space and the rest absorbed . Some of the absorbe denrgy is raidtaed back as infred energy o If the balance between the incoming and the outgoing energy is anything other than zero there has to be some warming (or cooling, if the number is negative) going on. The amount that the Earth’s energy budget is out of balance is called the radiative forcing and is a measure of recent human activities. It is measured in watts/m² of the Earth’s surface. o Prior to 1750, radiative forcing was negibale . Since then it has increase due to Increased GG emission and changin albedos due to land us ehcnages , other factors like aersols o Current level of radiative forcing (IPPC- 2.8 watts/m2) o If CO2 levels continue to rise at projected rates, experts predict that the Earth will become much hotter, possibly hot enough to melt much of the existing ice cover. Figure 1.55 depicts projected surface temperature changes up to 2060 as estimated by NASA’s Global Climate Model o

Answer 271

o Current level of radiative forcing (IPPC- 2.8 watts/m2)

Answer 272

- Key figures - 95% of peat is organic soil - 2-3m thick - High water tables and low oxygen content - Bacteria restricted in decomposing - Rate of accumulation is a balance of productivity and decomposition - A lowland peatland has 1000-2000 g/m2/yr - An upland peatland – 100-1000 - Tropical rainforest – 1000-1500

Answer 273

- Mainly northern – and Scotland – 50% of all UK carbon store is in Scotland – e.g. Cairngorm peatlands - The UK has 15% of the global peat bog resource and stores 3.2 million tonnes of carbon (greater than the atmosphere) - UK has 3 million hectares of peatland (10% of land area)

Answer 274

- Conserve biodiversity - Flood protection- giant sponges - Water filtration and cleaner water

Answer 275

- Lowland peat has reduced from 100 000 ha to 6000 ha over the last 100 years - Lancashire lost 83% of its peatland o Why? o commercial extraction for fuel or fertiliser –  as veg is lost then peat is not bound together by root system – leads to gully formation by surface water – creates a drainage system for peat so water no longer just stagnates on the surface – this lowers the water table – increasing oxygen and therefore decomposition  less veg= smaller carbon store/ sequestration  e.g. gully erosion on Kinder Scout , Derbyshire – down to the beadrock o Agriculture- in 40 years all UK peat under agriculture will have decomposed into less organic soils  In 2020, emissions from drained agricultural peatlands in England were estimated at 8.5 million tonnes carbon dioxide equivalents. This is around 3% of England’s emissions. o Global warming- a drier UK climate will lead a lower water table and more oxygen- increasing microbial activity and rates of decomposition will increase – carbon released into the atmosphere o Pollution – from the industrial revolution and Manchester and Sheffield effect upon the Pennies  acid deposition is high or concentrated, biodiversity will reduce reflecting the absence of acid sensitive epiphytic species of mosses and lichens.  Disappearance of Sphagnum moss species – most disappeared from large areas of southern Pennines and peak District – probably as a result of S02 deposition over 200 years of industrialisation - Up to 30% of the eroded peat is oxidised to CO2 in river system i.e. the carbon is not transferred as particulates into the ocean floor carbon sediment store but is released into the atmosphere. - A loss of 5% of UK peat resource = total annual UK Greenhouse gas emissions. From being a major store of carbon, the peatland becomes a major atmospheric flux of carbon.

Answer 276

- Up to 30% of the eroded peat is oxidised to CO2 in river system i.e. the carbon is not transferred as particulates into the ocean floor carbon sediment store but is released into the atmosphere.

Answer 277

- A loss of 5% of UK peat resource = total annual UK Greenhouse gas emissions.

Answer 278

- Seed ground by helicopter with grass to stabilise peat – then native plants re -establish themselves through succession - Gully blocking – using stone dams to raise the water table - Drain blocking in areas of artificial drainage - These takes about 8 years to take effect – but leads to a x10 reduction in erosion - Funded by companies paying for carbon offsets/ credits – e.g. a coal power station – in line with the ‘Peatland carbon code’ - The Great Fen Project (2001) o 9000 acres project reclaiming the Fens in Cambridgeshire – two reserves – Holme Fen and Woodwalton Fen o The project has already cost £10 million but could reach 30m by completion

Answer 279

- Could be used for paludiculture (farming on rewetted peat)- good solution for maintaining profitable use of lowland peatland while reducing GG emissions - Eighty-eight native UK wetland species have been identified with promising potential for energy, food, fodder, medicinal use, and raw material provision. Exploration of just a few species has begun, with most effort focused on Bulrush (Typha) and farmed Sphagnum. - Typha has many potential uses: as a building material (fibreboard and light weight aggregates), as a bioenergy crop and in clothing, to name just a few. - Farmed Sphagnum has the potential to replace peat in growing media but is also being explored for biomedical uses and as a source of industrial chemicals. - On 27 August 2022, the Government announced a new £5m fund to promote the use of peatlands for sustainable farming [1] – the Pluviculture Exploration Fund (PEF), which seeks to unlock barriers to making commercial paludiculture a reality. o 2023- the Great Fen project harvested its first paludiculture crop – Typha to be using as a new lightweight sustainable fibre filling by Ponda Peatlands store twice as much carbon as all the world’s forests - Peatlands more important than tropical rainforests

Answer 280

- HUMANS o Carbon is one of 6 crucial elements to humans – stored as glucose, assists cellular respiration, makes up 18% of the human body - PLANTS o The carbon content of leaves and woody matter in trees is 50% of their biomass - ANIMALS o Through food chains, carbon stored in plants is passed on to animals – provides energy for breathing, growing and reproducing o Through respiration and decomposition, carbon is returned to the atmosphere as CO2

Answer 281

- All living organism need water to survive – needed for drinking and irrigation - It is also a source of power and energy

Answer 282

- The ability of water to absorb and transfer carbon dioxide (soluble) The relationship between the water cycle and carbon cycle in the atmosphere. - Atmosphere is an important store of both water and carbon – - Carbon o Carbon in the atmosphere is essential in photosynthesis to crate carbohydrates needed for plant growth o It is also an important GG that absorbs long-wave radiation from earth, providing sufficient atmospheric warmth for life to survive - Water and carbon cycles do not act independently within the atmosphere. o E.G. o Carbon is absorbed in rainwater – facilities key processes and affects magnitude of stores and transfer  Becomes mildly acidic – pH 5.6  Affects weathering – contacts carbonate rocks and converts it to calcium bicarbonate – CARBONATION – which is soluble – dissolved carbon carried by rivers to oceans – used for shell growth , sedimentary rocks. Some CO2 returns to atmosphere

Answer 283

Something that can be used to satisfy human need

Answer 284

Means an ideal balance between population and resources. It refers to the population size in an area, which, working with all resources, will give the highest standard of living for people in that area.

Answer 285

means number of people exceeds supporting capacity of resources i.e. too many people putting pressure on resources If growth continues, standard of living will go down. E.g. Mali

Answer 286

Underpopulation means resources could support a greater population without lowering standards of living i.e. too few people to use resources efficiently. E.g? Canada, Australia, Norway

Answer 287

population where resources can be balanced/ can sustain human life

Answer 288

[ x [ x x [ x x [ x x [ [ [ -------------------------------------------- POP resources y axis

Answer 289

27th July/

Answer 290

desertification, potential unstable farming models, more irrigation needed- affects soil PH - salt pans

Answer 291

there's no place like home - DOROTHY from Wizards of Oz Yi Tuan Fu - 'human love of a place'- topophilia Doreen Massey - 'global sense of place' 'if history is about time, geography is about space' 'geography of nowhere' - James Kunstler John Agnew- location, locale, sense of place

Answer 292

reach environmental limits in next 100 years and there will be a sudden population decline

Answer 293

tropical diseases will expand out of the tropics as the atmosphere gets warmer (e.g. malaria)

Answer 294

UK vertical rectangle

Answer 295

near sourcing is outside the ocuntry but neabry so not as suspecitble to global supply chian distruptions outsourcing is further (different company)

Answer 296

Sub-saharan

Answer 297

Vertical integration Horizontal integration

Answer 298

to give out loans to developing countries to provide economic stability

Answer 299

dirty mavis song Oak Tree Lament 2011 (Stop HS2)

Answer 300

Rapid integration of the world’s economic systems in 1990s , opening up world trade to TNCs The focus of globalisation has been primarily on economic relationships such as international trade, foreign direct investment, and international capital flows. But also… Globalisation has since been expanded to encompass a wider range of dimensions including cultural, social, technological, political, environmental and also health related factors McPig- increasing transfer of money, culture, people, information and goods across the globe

Answer 301

Professor Giddens - globalisation is the intensification of worldwide social relations’

Answer 302

Economic- e.g. trade and aid, TNCS, capital flows etc Social – exchange of ideas, migration, social networks, growing uniformity Political- global institutions , trading groups, NGOs, action of climate change or COVID Health – medical advances, pandemic control, pharmaceutical Environmental – impacts/degradation, green campaigns, linked by global commons global governance – COPs Technological – technology boosts productivity needed for important industries, communication, green technology Cultural – spread/ exposure of different cultures, can lead to a global culture. Westernisation, cultural diffusion, globalisation

Answer 303

predicted 'global village' where free rein is given to economic and information flows, and the beginning of making planet wide decisions.

Answer 304

This process concerns the changing relationship between time and space, and notably the impacts of transportation improvements on such a relationship. It is closely related to the concept of speed, which indicates how much space can be traveled over a specific amount of time.

Answer 305

as the distance from a place increases, the interactions with that place decrease, usually because the time and cost involved increase with distance.

Answer 306

 Thomas Friedman has said that today globalisation is ‘farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper’ o Farther- lengthened in distance over time – product sourced form faraway places. o Deeper- sense of being globally connected e.g. social media, food o Faster- internet, real time e.g. Zoom, messenger  He also said that ‘the world is flat’ in 2005- it was an apt metaphor for globalisation: goods, ideas and people sliding smoothly across borders.

Answer 307

It has been said that arguing against globalisation is like arguing against the laws of gravity

Answer 308

e.g. 2008 financial crisis started in USA but effected world trade, other setbacks such as trade wars, international conflicts and falling commodity prices

Answer 309

- Middle ages – the Silk Road - 17th century took 30 years for French fashion to reach England - 1944- world bank set up - 1945- UN set up - 1948- Empire Windrush - 1953- took 5 days for news of Edmund Hillary reaching Mt Everest to reach London - 1975- UK joins the EU - 1996- internet available in homes - 2000-UN launches Millenium development goals - 2001- 9/11- attack on world trade centre - 2004- Facebook starts - Soon – with advanced supersonic aircraft- 80 minutes to go from NYC to London

Answer 310

flows of capital, labour, products, services and information; global marketing; patterns of production, distribution and consumption.

Answer 311

All money transferred between countries- investment, FDI, trade or production

Answer 312

deregulation of the financial markets meant banks, insurance,investments companies were no longer confined within national boundaries (age of neoliberalism)- known as the BIG BANG in the UK - 1986 Thatcher

Answer 313

1986- Thatcher - The Big Bang refers to the day the London Stock Exchange (LSE) was deregulated on October 27, 1986. -After deregulation, the volume of shares traded on the LSE and its market capitalization increased. -achievement of the Conservative government led by Margaret Thatcher. - Deregulation eliminated fixed commissions, authorized firms to represent investors, opened the London Stock Exchange to foreign firms, and implemented an electronic platform.

Answer 314

a political approach that favours free-market capitalism, deregulation, and reduction in government spending

Answer 315

$31 trillion

Answer 316

6. 6 trillion

Answer 317

1974->explains the emergence of a core, periphery and semi-periphery in terms of economic and political connections first established at the beginning of exploration in the late 15th century. Built upon the dependency theory

Answer 318

 Dependency theory proposed that the poverty and backwardness of poor countries are caused by their peripheral position in the international division of Labour.

Answer 319

strong economies with large economic productivity, and higher per capita GDP- HICS. Global power is concentrated here

Answer 320

NICs , median standards of living (Chile, Brazil, India, China etc..). Offer citizens diverse economic opportunities,s but extreme gaps between rich and poor

Answer 321

low level economic productivity, low per capita GDP, low standards of living, Africa (not South Africa), part of S America and Asia- which have been exploited and have suffered from a lack of investment, leakages and out-migration.

Answer 322

is an ownership stake in a foreign company or project made by an investor, company, or government from another country. (via share, merger or joint venture or subsidiary company)

Answer 323

USA- 4626 billion

Answer 324

o TNCs investing in overseas production will normally take any profit made from that investment back to their home-country. This is known as an economic leakage as the income is ‘leaked’ from the country that received the investment. The majority of these flows return to companies based in richer countries

Answer 325

Multilateral (Official development assistance) or bilateral – often comes with conditions - important source of support for poor countries

Answer 326

 Poorer to richer countries  Can exaggerate disparities by sending away skilled labourers who pay taxes and spend earnings in rich country  Yet do pay remittances

Answer 327

These are transfers of money made by foreign workers to family in their home country -India is the top recipient in 2023- $125 billion – update - USA largest source of remittances - Nepal relies on remittances for more than 25% of GDP  Benefits * Stable and increasing as a source of income * Goes directly to families so it alleviates poverty  Disadvantages * High transfer charges. can be as high as 15-18%. SDG goal is to make it 3% by 20230  Beginning to encourage works to invest in diaspora bonds to finance development

Answer 328

- Now difficult to distinguish between core and periphery due to BRICSs and MINTs -The rapid growth of large and medium emerging economies such as the BRIC and, more recently, MINT countries means there is now more of a continuum of development - China now a core country - Most countries’ economies are still dependent on flows of investment to and from other countries.

Answer 329

 BRIC – An acronym used to identify a group of four countries – Brazil, Russia, India and China – whose economies have advanced rapidly since the 1990s. Sometimes South Africa is added to this list so the acronym becomes BRICS

Answer 330

 MINT – An acronym referring to the more recently emerging economies of Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey are all important manufacturing hubs. o Nigeria is additionally a major exporter of oil and also trades globally in low-budget films (the “Nollywood” film industry

Answer 331

 A tiger economy is the economy of a country which undergoes rapid economic growth, usually accompanied by an increase in the standard of living.

Answer 332

Flows of labour are the movement of people who move to work in another country (Migration) This includes specialised workers, for example, who move between different units/ companies of a TNC on a short term basis and unskilled migrant workers using a range of transport modes

Answer 333

- Europe and Asia each hosted around 87 and 86 million international migrants respectively (61% of all international migrants) - 3-4% of the population are international migrants - 14.1% of high income countries made up of international migrants - 1.6% of LIC populations are made up of migrants o Germany and Luxembourg have the largest number of total immigrants and the highest rate of immigration in 2021 in Europe

Answer 334

- Increasing to due increase in transport (high-speed rail; airports and containerisation) - Yet not as free flowing as flows of capital o Restrictions on immigration - Overall trend o S Asia, Africa, Latin America to North America and Europe and Gulf countries o Latin America and Caribbean to North America is the largest flow from one continent to another

Answer 335

Example- Nepal relies on remittances for more than 25% of GDP (in 2014, 16 000 left each month) to gulf/middle east

Answer 336

- Skilled and unskilled – both go to higher-income countries searching for better job prospects - Many countries rely on the flow of highly skilled workers as they utilise their skills – interdependence – e.g. NHS, only 63.4% of the doctors are trained here – many migrated - Unskilled usually work in lower economic-value jobs that reduces the shortage of workers in the UK- but are often unpaid

Answer 337

- Product flows are the movement of produced goods from area of production to area of consumption. - Increased globalisation has caused product flows to become international, meaning products are produced by a country and then transported to another country.

Answer 338

PAST - Manufacturing in HICs due to access to resources (factories) and ability to buy materials and products sold where they were made

Answer 339

- GLOBAL SHIFT - - Now international trade has created major product flows- ¼ of all products are exported , between LICs and HICs - Production now in LICS (better transport and communication) – low labour costs , offshoring- then transported to HICs to be sol - Cause a decline in manufacturing industry in HICs - EMPLOYMENT IN THE MANUFACTURING BUSINESS IN THE UK HAS DECREASED BY OVER 3.4 MILLION JOBS SINCE 1985

Answer 340

Post 2010? - Between 1950 and 2010, world trade grew exponentially, but since 2010 it has decreased and plateaued (despite increasing population) - It was in 2010, when China surpassed US as the largest manufacturing country in the world ( and has been ever since)

Answer 341

Limitations - COVID decreased global trade by 20% and exposed the risks of supply chain

Answer 342

- China is the largest manufacturing country (31.6% share of Global Manufacturing), with the US second (15.87%)

Answer 343

- Product flows are changing due to emerging economies and growing middle class and increasing demand for materials and manufactured prdycts – growing ocnusmerism o E.g. apple shop first opened in China in 2008, now 40 stoes

Answer 344

- Increased due to o Increased demand o Low production costs – mass production and low wage economies – e.g. China and S E Asia o Trade blocs and removal of barriers to trade like tariffs o Reduced transaction costs due to ease of flow of data o Reduced transport costs and increased speed – due to containerisation

Answer 345

1/4 (in 1870- less than 1/10)

Answer 346

- Service is an economic activity without goods - Service industries can flow due to the ability to transfer information in the globalised world. Services can be transferred on phone calls or via the internet, meaning there is no longer a need for the industry to be tied down to a location o E.G. Banking, advertising and insurance demand on flow of information and communication and are able to be located anywhere due to advanced technology which leads to outsourcing - It comes after previous flows are dependent on them

Answer 347

– services to business- finance, investment and advertising (HICS and NEEs in global hubs)

Answer 348

services to consumers- banking, travel , insurance, tourism, customer call centres or comms (offshore in LICs where labour are low)

Answer 349

- Interestingly, Indian call centre workers on average are more qualified than call centre workers in England (many having graduate or postgraduate degrees). However, there is a lack of high level service job opportunity in India for those who possess relevant qualifications - Trends- decentralisation of low level services from developed to developing  E.g. call centres moved from UK to India o India has 20% lower labour costs o This has given India great economic success o India has a large proportion of English speakers so ideal for this

Answer 350

o HSBC- banking o AXA- insurance o WPP group UK- advertising o TUI group Germany – travel and tourism

Answer 351

- Global information flows have grown rapidly since the 90s. - The development of internet use, social media platforms and entertainment services have allowed information to be transferred globally with ease. - Purpose?- The expansion of information helps intensive goods and services and R and D industries such as pharmaceuticals, international law, engineers, computer technology etc.. to flourish o - because it transfers ideas, languages, industrial tech, design and business management support

Answer 352

o Fast Broadband and connections- news and finance info – current events o Social media – experience other cultures, interconnected. o Real-time data and data transfers- contribute to the ‘knowledge economy’ quaternary industry.  Knowledge drives innovation- stock markets, high-tech products, the education sector and many other areas of society o Large databases and archives – used for research and education- seek better employment opportunities- more global connections and allowing online work-from-home jobs

Answer 353

- Marketing involves promoting, advertising and selling

Answer 354

- TNCs either standardise products and marketing (Coca cola) or standardise products but adapt marketing campaigns (Apple) or glocalise (McDonalds) o TNCs view the world as a single market , develop a recognisable brand and employ one marketing strategy and specialise in just one product (don’t adapt it significantly- e.g. Coca Cola only alters size of can due to different regulations, but uses same formula) which leads to economies of scale which reduced costs

Answer 355

o Apple – keep products and bran the same, but alter marketing campaigns – e.g. China they use celebrities to promote product

Answer 356

o McDonalds – ‘Mclocalisation’  Adapt goods and campaigns to the region due to different languages, consumer behaviour and preferences  So no pork in Muslim countries, no beef in Hindu, kosher food in Jewish, McCafe’s in the USA to adapt to the coffee cultures and McRice in Indonesia and Asterix as company logo in France

Answer 357

1954, 95% of production was in the industrialised counties in West Europe, North America and Japan

Answer 358

Over last 40 years , manufacturing has become decentralised from HICs. There has been a global/Asian shift -production moving from HDEs to developing countries in Asia such as China

Answer 359

US- back to HICS?- MAGA campaign . USMCA China is investing in Africa?

Answer 360

Distribution refers to the way something is spread out or arranged over a geographic area- it refers to where products and services are sold globally.

Answer 361

E.G. Primark HQ in Dublin Ireland 300 stores, most in UK and Spain (consumers) Manufactured in China and Bangladesh, they have 928 contracted factories Impact? -2013 building collapsed in Salvor, Bangladesh and 1100 died -Rumours of child labour and very low pay for long hours

Answer 362

developed counties consumed the most , NEEs exported to HDEs

Answer 363

NEES becoming more affluent, have their own middle class so increased internal demand For example, Dyson UK saw a 75% growth in demand for its products in the Asian market in 2017 and just a 1/5 increase in Europe Moved manufacturing to Malaysia in 2002 Moved headquarters to Singapore in 2019 (reflecting increase consumption in Asia)

Answer 364

W Europe, USA , Japan and China will continue being the highest consumers Asia will increase consumption , especially due to Belt and Road initiative Expansion of consumption of financial services in Asia-Pacific – lead to competition between HDEs and NEEs financial corporations

Answer 365

o Lower costs  Due to low land and labour costs  Incentives form governments in the form of tax breaks and special economic zones  Transfer of technology has increased productivity o Due to FDI from TNCs , many emerging economies have developed competitive manufacturing industries o China Open Door Policy 1990s - TNCs also consider when moving o Availability of skilled, educated work force o Opportunity for expansion – new plants etc o No tariff barriers o Available infrastructure such as power supply, roads and ports – will often invest in these if other conditions are favourable

Answer 366

- - Deindustrialization in the HDEs and the subsequent decline in jobs due to lack of investment o In UK manufacturing industry has declined by 60% since the 1970s - Government reactions - Political reactions - International Division of Labour - Emergences of Tiger and BRIC countries

Answer 367

- Started to invest in deindustrialised regions and offered incentives such as tax breaks - Invested in skills and tech to upgrade manufacturing and recently in the UK there has been an increase in technology manufacturing - Put in place protectionist policies ot protect domestic production o Could be counter productive by making these domestic industries less competitive globally

Answer 368

- The decline in standard of living in these deindustrialisation has led to the rise of populist and nationalist movements which were import in the 2016 Brexit vote and the trump election

Answer 369

- The highly skilled, highly paid, decision-making, research and managerial occupation which, on a global scale, are largely concentrated in more developed countries - The unskilled, poorly paid assembly occupations, which are increasingly located in NIC’s, which have lower labour costs

Answer 370

- Many LICs have become NEEs and developed their own industrial and commercial bases and made markest for their own goods and services - This started with the 4 Asian tiger economies (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Tawain), followed by BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) - Many TNCS have emrged from these countries , extending their global influence - Thus new cores have been created

Answer 371

1. Information technology revolution 2. 1990s – communist blocs opening up and countries being added to the market economy 3. Deregulation of the Financial markets in the 1980s (neoliberal policies)- Big Bang 1986 – Thatcher

Answer 372

Financial systems - Global financial systems – used by TNCs, consumers, investors, financial institutions and regulated by the IMF . It provides framework for and facilitates the flow of capital - Created after deregulation of financial markets in 1980 (BIG BANG) which made it easier to transfer money abroad Why is it a trigger? - Now financial services and business can access a wider range of financial products and services - Easier for companies to access capital and for investors to diversify portfolio - Began to integrate developing countries into the GFS and this has helped shape international trade - Fewer concerns about exchange rates - Secure online fast payments Disadvantages - Each area supplied by the same company/business – placelessness - Increased financial volatility – interconnected so event in one part of the world has ripple effect – e.g. 2008 financial crisis – US house prices collapsed

Answer 373

However, transport is not the only factor which is responsible for globalisation. The deregulation of the global financial system has also paved a way for globalisation. Deregulation made it easier to move finance across borders, making it easier to trade with and invest in other countries. This allows more sales to occur in more places which can create a sense of ‘placelessness’ in which every area is supplied by the same company/business. The development of the global financial system (GFS) has helped shape international trade. Furthermore, the use of advanced communication/ electronic transmission systems means that transactions can be completed securely with fewer concerns about exchange rates so even more sales can take place.

Answer 374

- Improved transport has increased movement of people and goods and in larger quantities in a smaller amount of time - How? o Integrated air traffic network o Growth of low-cost airlines o High speed rail – HS2 o International airport hubs – Dubai has overtaken Heathrow as world busiest airport o Containerisation – by sea, rail, road, and air o Comms have improved logistic and management o Growth of dry ports in less development countries  Where distances to sea ports are too long so make a dry inland port close to businesses – saves exporter time and transport cost as all shipments arrangement and documentation completed locally before goods shipped to a seaport  E.g. Pakistan – 6 inland dry port that go to Karachi for export o New technologies – larger size of aircraft, - now movements of goods is quicker, TNCs can access to new markets , consumers have a wider range of products to choose o For example, the trade of Coca Cola across the world has led it to become the second most recognised word worldwide, this would never be possible without transport needed to get it into the hands of consumers. - increase tourism as low cost – spreads ideas and closens ties - when transporting products, also transports a new culture and ideas – globalise world Disadvantages - increased spread of diseases – COVID

Answer 375

Transport could be seen as the most important factor of globalisation because it has made the world ever more accessible and vulnerable to spread of ’foreign’ ideas and products. This global transport network allows the movement of people and goods across vast distances. Products and commodities can be shipped more quickly because of containerisation (the use of standardised containers), increased aircraft size, growth of low cost airlines and air freight companies, high speed rail networks and management and distribution efficiencies. Furthermore, the use of dry inland ports provides local hubs of global connectivity. All these factors allow for faster transportation around the globe. This ability to quickly and easily move goods from one country to another has allowed businesses (TNC’s) to access new markets and customers, and it has also made it easier for consumers to access a wide range of products around the world. This not only has a ‘shrinking’ world effect as distant places are now readily accessible, but also causes a flow of information and culture as its products are used by consumers around the world. For example, the trade of Coca Cola across the world has led it to become the second most recognised word worldwide, this would never be possible without transport needed to get it into the hands of consumers. Clearly, transportation is vital in trading products which in turn are important to spreading new cultures and ideas which lead to a more globalised and homogenised world.

Answer 376

Introduction of security systems Problems - over reliance of comes/info systems led to threat of cybersecurity – high profile leaks of sensitive info o average cost of the most severe online security breaches for big corporation in the UK cost £1.5 million - globalisation has led to terrorism threats - due to the world interconnectedness, we need stability or one of the process may come down and others follow (e.g. global energy market collapse, so does financial so doe political) Security systems.. - given countries confidence when expanding. o More security, means more confidence when trading and sending information s, so greater international relations and thus globalisation - gives TNCs economic security

Answer 377

How? - Screen and monitor movements of terrorism by security forces - Growth of counter terrorism agencies - Interpol organises police in different countries to work together to fight transnational crime - Ensure imported products meet required safety standards - Prevent the introduction and spread o harmful organisms /biochemical substance – biosecurity - To secure supply chain , they ensure products are authentic, safe and can travel through borders freely - To ensure economic/trade security – the world custom organization introduced ‘Authorized Economic Operators’ – AEO is awarded to exporters and importers who meet standard criteria - Political security due to Bretton world institutions – such as IMF and WB – they ensure economic security and so political security - UN, EU and NATO promote world security

Answer 378

Closer social ties - Growth of technology (internet, mobile phones, satellite communications 1960s) means information is shared easily with few barriers to sharing data globally - Stats o 5 billion Facebook likes a day o January 2023- 5.16 billion internet users worldwide, 64.4% of population - Technology and comms make distance places seem closer (link to changing places) o responsible for the shrinking world effect/ time space convergence - It has created a global culture/community o Global sense of place- Doreen Massey

Answer 379

Closer economic ties - Helps TNCs, global institutions etc.. o Internet, cloud computing and data analysis has facilitated the collection, storage, and analysis of data, allowing business to make more informed decision and respond quickly to changes in the market - Brings security o Enabled countries to share intelligence and law enforcement information -and work together to counter threats like terrorism and transnational crime - Improve efficiency of transport o Comms needed in transportation industry – logistics and distribution systems - Improves manufacturing industries o Robotic technologies have improved manufacturing operations o Comms regarding design and production of new tech, infrastructure and transport (increased brain power to invent – the inventions then further globalisation) - Global financial systems relies on it o – development of internet and online payment systems – electronic payment replaced cash and checks - Trade blocs o Need comms to run efficiently , members need to communicate

Answer 380

- Easier for terrorists and criminals to move across borders due to deregulation of borders - Spread of misinformation has become a major concern - Most media owned by a few large corporations – concerns over media bias and erosion of diverse viewpoints - Increased potential for cyber attacks

Answer 381

Finally, the advancement of communication could be seen as a more significant factor of globalisation because of its pivotal role in the spreading information across the globe. Information today can now be shared easily and cheaply with a click of a button because there are few barriers to prevent the sharing of information and flow of data globally. There are 5.16 billion internet users worldwide- this quick flow of information clearly has a domino effect in the expansion of the globe and is a factor which the GFS, trade agreements and also transport rely on. For example, communication systems are responsible for the success of the global financial system due to the new age of online payment systems. Without this communication technology the GFS would be far less efficient and globalisation would not increase as rapidly because less trade would occur. Similarly, communications allow information regarding design and production of new technologies, infrastructure and transport to be spread around the world, increasing the brain power to invent new technologies which in turn facilitate globalisation. Finally, communications are also vital in the transportation industry, providing improved logistic and distribution systems of world trade- for example computerised logistic systems have evolved to support supply chain distribution. Trading blocs would also be far less successful and very hard to run efficiently without advanced communication technology that allows members to connect each other instantly. Evidently, communications are vital in ‘shrinking’ effect of the world, perhaps more important than the physical transport infrastructure itself.

Answer 382

- Better management and distribution of transport has reduced transport times - Increased number of economies scale/ growth of supply chain means there is high volume production, management is needed to ensure that sales keep in pace with increased production o For example, companies may use enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems to track and manage inventory, orders and production in real time o Or customer relationship management – tack and mage customer interactions and data - JIT- just in time systems – boost efficiency of supply chain o It ensures the correct quantities of materials, components and assembled good are available on time, in the right location at each stage of production o This reduces cost by have fewer goods and material in stock o So principle is that production pulled through by customer orders, rather than pushed through to build up stock o Lower cost means more trade so more globalisation Managing chains can be done remote which has been enabled by information systems which bring telecommunications and video conference, integrated ICT management systems These management systems also boost globalisation by allowing - High order business actives (R and D, design and engineers, marketing and advertising) based at headquarters and strategic hubs - Lower order activities (production and assembly) at low production cost location or near to large markets for finished goods MIS led to growth of logistics and distribution industry Disadvantages - Increase MIS like JIT has made supply chains vulnerable to disruption – COVID – shortage of goods - Need to ensure data security and privacy

Answer 383

General Economic Cooperation- More loose knit and contains members with an interest in cooperation and development of trade, but no formal trade agreement APEC Preferential trade Areas- When countries within a geographical region agree to reduce and or eliminate tariff barriers on selected goods imported from other members of the area Free Trade Area Eliminates internal barriers but each member maintains independent external barriers ASEAN Customs Union Eliminates internal barriers , one common external barrier This means members negotiate as a single block within third parties CARICOM Common Market The same as a customs union, but with free movement of goods, services, capital and labour without any restrictions -for a common market to be successful there must also be a significant level of harmonisation of micro economic policies and common rules regarding monopoly power and other anti-competitive practises - there may also be common policies affecting key industries such as the common agricultural policy cap and common fisheries policy CFP of the European single market ESM EU single market Economic/ Monetary Union Operate as a common market with the additional integration of a common tax system or currency EU Eurozone

Answer 384

- Denmark is a member of EU single market but not the Eurozone - Subgroups of larger groups – e.g. UEMOA in West Africa a subgroup of ECOWAS

Answer 385

- Not all trade agreements are regionally based o E.g. OPEC is made up of mainly Middle East countries but also S America and S Africa o E.g. EU and Japan- Feb 209 – economic partnership- removes tariffs to encourage trade o Transpacific Partnership

Answer 386

- Improve global peace and security, reduce conflict o E.g. NAFTA – head of states met more regularly - Increase global trade and economic cooperation. - Encourage socioeconomic development in middle and lower income countries

Answer 387

- Economic migrants and remittances due to free movement of labour ( fill shortage of workers) - Members are encouraged to specialise , knowing they have free access to each other’s markets, this allows comparative advantage - Trade creation- increase in production and trade (high cost domestic porducers replaced by lower and more efficient porducers) o E.g. NAFTA- trade quadrupled - Domestic industries protected from cheap imports – e.g. EU shoe industry from cheap imports from China and Vietnam - Creates economies of scale – mass production for a large market reduces average cost of production o E.g. NAFTA- manufacturing grew in the US- create d5 million jobs and increased economic output – helped them compete with Asian tigers - International status o Can compete on a global level with other trading groups/ greater economic leverage in negotiations  NAFTA- more competitive bidding for government contracts reduced costs o Attracts local and FDI because of a larger market size  E.g. NAFTA- FDI more than tripled. Mexico especially – TNCs produced there to gain access to markets (US and Canada)- maquiladoras o Greater representation in world affairs - Faster transfer of technology - Employment - In monetary unions – common currency prevents exchange rate fluctuations and simplifies transactions - Provide support for certain sectors (Agriculture in the EU) or regions – e.g. declining industrial regions (EU Regional Fund) - Raise standards of living (healthcare and education) - Promotes democracy and human rights - Regional cooperation in emergencies – pooling resources in response to natural disaster, terrorism threats, pandemics - The advantages of largest of the largest trade blocs are increased further as any similar trade agreement with LDEs are weaker and achieve limited advantages

Answer 388

- Restrict the development of a global economy. - Offer unfair advantages to members - Blocs distort world trade and reduce the benefits of specialisation and comparative advantage - Inefficient producer within the bloc protected from more efficient ones on the outside o E.g. European farmers protected o This creates trade diversion when trade is diverted away from efficient producers- forced to buy form within the group at artificially low prices - Leads to trade disputes o Recent Boeing US/Airbus EU dispute – research o US and EU have a long history of trade disputes  US Steel tariffs declared illegal by WTO in 2005  US applied 60 million tariffs on EU beef in response to EU ban on US hormone treated beef - Loss of sovereignty o Decisions become centralised at a supra national level – for example, in the EU, the loss of freedom to negotiate separate trade agreements o Pressure to adopt central legislation  E.g. European Court of Justice has ultimate legal power on issues like human rights  Some say that it is less democratic and more bureaucratic o Loss of financial control – especially those in a monetary union –  E.g. UEMOA has to adopt a overvalued common currency which damages exports - Freedom of movement of labour increases competition for work and can depress workers wages- may cause unemployment o E.g. NAFTA – job migration suppressed wages in US factories . Jobs stolen by cheap labour. - Increased interdependence can mean that some members of the group become overly dependent on others - Over exploitation of shared resources- e.g. UK sharing its traditional fishing grounds with other EU nations, such as Spain and France - Contributes to environmental problems- air pollution and CC o E.g. NAFTA  US and Canadian mining companies degraded the Mexican environments – taking advantage of its natural resources and lax pollution laws - Loss of blue collar jobs in the most developed country in the block as manufacturer relocated to lower costs countries (e.g. Mexican maquiladora plants near the border)

Answer 389

- During 2018- Trump renegotiated NAFTA, ratified in 2020 - Trumps goal was to reduce size of the US trade deficit that had built up with both Mexico and Canda

Answer 390

- 2016 referendum – 17.4 m to 16.1 m – OUT - Left on the 31st January 202 , then entered transition period with the EU

Answer 391

- Major economic crisis in 2015- 4 billion euros in debt, and almost left the EU - Stemmed from overspending on an inefficient public sector, combined with the 2088 financial crisis. - Bailouts from IMF and EU - Also struggling with a migrant influx in 2015 - GREXIT o Economy autonomy o Trade flexibility, regional trading opportunities - REMAIN o Staying provided stability , access to European free markets and eased import reliance

Answer 392

Interdependence – each country depends on others and so what happens in one place will increasingly have impacts on others

Answer 393

social, economic and political impacts) ‘When America sneezes we’ll catch a cold’ - USA is a major economy that uses global systems to drive home its advantages over the rest of the world- unequal relationship - Other countries where resources are more limited may only be able to respond to global events in a more limited way (recipients of change) Economic - Trade – countries rely on other countries to supply their needs and also to buy their exported products. o Dangers- e.g. Russia’s policies on gas supply affects energy costs in Europe - Tech o Competing (or cooperating) with foreign business may bring new innovation , which can increase quality of products and services and make them affordable for consumers - Employment- jobs lost in one place and gained in another o For example, a UK manufacturing company might relocate to Malaysia, where they hire more workers at lower cost- more jobs in Malaysia, job losses in the UK - International economic migration o 2019- migrants accounted for more than 20% of the total population in 48 countries o 20% of the UAE workforce are from the Philippines o Provides much needed workers in some sectors of the economy, and the Philippines relies on remittances sent back - TNCs and investment o Work across countries, interdependence between HIC and LIC. LICs rely on HICs for investment and HICs on LICs for the goods o May form joint ventures with local companies - Supply Chains o Different components span across many countries before being assembled - Industrialisation o Industrialisation is some places (BRICS) and is some places deindustrialisation and structural unemployment

Answer 394

Political - Countries rely on one another in intergovernmental organisations o Provide stability, dialogue and consensus among nations o IMF, WB facilitate capital flows o WTO overseas trade o UN - Work together on common goals (e.g. COPs) - Some argue that wars won’t happen because of interdependence o Thomas Friedman 1999- ‘Golden Arches’ Theory where no 2 countries that both had McDonalds had fought each other since each got its McDonalds because their economies and cultures are so interlinked o Disproved several times since

Answer 395

Social - Health – WHO took the lead in combating COVID- national governments relied on this advice - Education o Foreign exchange programmes (such as Erasmus on the EU) o Study Abroad years – beneficial for students and institutions involved - Cultural o Migration – stronger social ties – for example – large Indian diaspora settle din the UK deepened its relationship with India

Answer 396

- Global climate change – international summits , UNFCCC and UNEP – encourage all nations to work towards the shared goals of CC mitigation and biodiversity protection - Global Commons- interdependent in sharing resources (oceans and atmosphere) – governed by the same international legislation - Unsustainable practices – challenge environmental interdependence o E.g. air pollution, acid rain deposition and deforestation (may happen in Amazon or S E Asia but impacts on a global scale may be irreversible)

Answer 397

Promote stability, growth and development For developed countries - Reduced unemployment – addresses important skill and labour shortage in places (e.g. NHS) - Migrant workers increase workforce, pay taxes, spend money – promote growth and reduces dependency in HDEs with ageing populations For less developed countries - Reduces some inequality as foreign workers earn higher wages in HDEs - Remittances sent back to developing countries provide stability and opportunity for growth - Workers return to their country of origin equipped with new skills and ideas - Reduce population pressure on resources, such as food and water, and services, e.g. Healthcare, in developing countries

Answer 398

Cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices For developed countries - Migrants and their families put pressure on health and education services in HDEs – and may be treated differently in the systems (inequality) - If only workers are allowed to settle, families may be separated – which is unjust - Migrants may be segregated formally or informally into certain areas - Resentment towards migrants – ethnic and cultural conflict - Some states , like Qatar and Singapore, depend on migrant labour for their prosperity - Outsourcing of production, causes unemployment For developing countries - Lose younger, more talented workers attracted by higher wages – brain drain reinforces inequality and dependency o Loss of these workers impacts on productivity , growth and development - Overdependent on remittances - Unfair working conditions – exploitation – e.g. 1400 dead in Qatar in World Cup Fifa