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Bio120 > GENETICS Lecture 7a+7b > Flashcards

GENETICS Lecture 7a+7b Flashcards

1
Q

THE FOUNDER OF GENETICS?

A

Gregor mendel(1822-1884)

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2
Q

What is genetics?

A

branch of biology concerned with heredity and variation of inherited characteristics.

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3
Q

who is the father of medicine and what was his idea of genetics?

A

HIPPOCRATES (500-400b.c)
Pan genesis- particles called pangenes travel from each part of an organism’s body to the egg/sperm, and are then passed to the offspring.

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4
Q

what was Aristotle’s perspective about Hippocrates Pan genesis?

A

rather than the particles of the organs itself, the formers inherited characteristics were formed from blood.

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5
Q

According to Aristotle, Blood’s __________ had the capacity to produce offspring of the same form, not because it already contained all parts in miniature.

A

VITAL HEAT

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6
Q

What is the “Theory of Epigenesis” and who proposed it?

A

WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657),ENGLISH ANATOMIST

An organism is derived from substances present in the egg, which differentiate into adult structure during embryonic development.

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7
Q

What is the “Atomic theory” and who proposed it?

A

JOHN DALTON 1808
All matter is composed of small invisible units called atoms.

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8
Q

What is “Germ(cel) Theory” and who proposed it?

A

LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-1895)

All organism are composed of basic visible units called cells, which are derived from pre-existing cells.

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9
Q

What is the “FIXITY OF SPECIES” and who proposed it?

A

CAROLUS LINNAEUS (1707-1778)

member of species can only give rise to other member of species, thus implying that all species are independently created.

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10
Q

What do u mean by “The inheritance of acquired characteristics” and who proposed it?

A

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

that traits acquired by an organism during its lifetime can be passed on to its offspring..

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11
Q

What the “the theory of origin of species” and who proposed it?

A

CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882)

EVOLUTION-Descent with modification
-Species change over time, give rise to new species and share a common ancestor.

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12
Q

what is the “Blending theory of Inheritance”?

A

Hereditary traits blend evenly in offspring, through mixing of the parent’s blood.
Offspring inherits the average of the parent’s characteristic value.

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13
Q

when did Gregor experimented with garden peas?

A

1860s

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14
Q

what were characters and traits for Mendel?

A

CHARACTER-variety of heritable characteristics-seed shape, flower colour

TRAITS-variation in a character-purple flower, white flower

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15
Q

what did Mendel establish about genes?

A

Characters are passed into offspring in the form of discrete hereditary factors, known as genes.

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16
Q

the principle of inheritance were first demonstrated by ______.

A

Gregor Johann Mendel
-1st scientist to effectively apply quantitive methods to the study of inheritance.

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17
Q

Two major discoveries of Mendel?

A

-PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION
-PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

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18
Q

WHAT ARE ALLELES?

A

alternative form of genes, which may have diff DNA sequence and may produce diff traits of a same character(white or purple flower)

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19
Q

DIPLOID?

A

Organism with 2 copy of each chromosomes

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20
Q

the two alleles of a gene in a diploid individual maybe ______ or ________.

A

identical or different

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21
Q

Mendel called the masking effect as ______.

A

Dominance

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22
Q

what 3 hypothesis are supported by Mendel’s crossed?

A

-one factor for each parent.
-one is dominant over the other.
-gene segregate,enter gametes singly.

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23
Q

NAME THE PRINCIPLES OF MENDEL FOR CHOOSING PEA PLANT FOR HIS EXPERIMENT?

A

-easily cultivated in garden
-many varieties- distinguishable traits
-diploid
-self pollinated in nature
-can be cross pollinated by hands, both self and cross pollination possible

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24
Q

PHENOTYPE?

A

Physical appearance of an organism-traits-appearance, development, biochemical and psychological properties, behaviour

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25
Q

GENOTYPE?

A

Genetic makeup of an organism

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26
Q

name the 3 factors that determining phenotype?

A

-Genotype
-epigenetic factors
-non- inherited environmentaal factors

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27
Q

Experiments to determine the pattern of inheritance of single traits are known as _____________.

A

MONOHYBRID CROSS

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28
Q

Varieties with the traits chosen by Mendel had _________.

A

True-breeding lines

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29
Q

Define true breeding line?

A

AKA pure breeding
when self fertilized, pass traits from one generation to another with little to no variation.

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30
Q

define cross(hybridization)?

A

cross fertilization of 2 diff species

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31
Q

Hybrid?

A

offspring of ParentS “P” of 2 diff species

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32
Q

F1 generation?

A

offspring resulting from cross of parents
F1- first filial generation

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33
Q

F2 generation?

A

next gen (offspring) of plants from self pollination of F1*F1

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34
Q

what was the observation of Mendel in a MONOHYBRID CROSS for flower color?

A

1.no blending observed in F1
2.produced both purple and white-3:1

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35
Q

what were the propositions made my Mendel after observing all 7 traits of pea plants?

A

-for each trait their is a pair(alleles) of heritable factor (genes) in each parent.
-gamete formation- 2 factors of trait separate - 1 is passed onto a gamete.
-during fertilization, each parent contributes 1 factor for a trait-offspring (pair of factors)
-cross b/w individual with diff traits of a pair-both present, one masked by other

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36
Q

Homozygous?

A

true breeding - 2 identical allele- PP or pp.

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37
Q

Heterozygous?

A

diff allele for given characteristic- Pp

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38
Q

Hemizygous?

A

condition in which only 1 copy of a gene or DNA sequence present in a diploid cell.

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39
Q

what is a Punnett square and whom is it named after?

A

A tool to predict the probability of possible genotypes of offspring.
-“REGINALD CRUNDALL PUNNETT”-1875-1967 British biologist/geneticist

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40
Q

Test cross?

A

cross of an individual with unknown genotype(either heterozygous or homozygous)for a particular characteristic with a homozygous recessive individual for the same charcteristic.

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41
Q

What is Mendel’s first law?

A

LAW OF SEGREGATION
When any individual produces gametes, the alleles seperate so that each pair of gamete receive only one allele.

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42
Q

_________ is used by geneticists as a standard test to determine whether an individual with a dominant trait is heterozygous or homozygous.

A

Testcross

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43
Q

DIHYBRID?

A

A zygote produced from a cross that involves 2 characters. as in seed shape and seed color

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44
Q

what was the reason behind Mendel performing dihybrid cross?

A

to see if the 2 traits of parent are passed on together on gametes or whether they segregate independtly.

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45
Q

In Mendel’s 2 trait passed on together, then ______ type of gametes formed on the hypothesis of linked assortment are?(YyRr)

A

2
YR,yr

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46
Q

according to hypothesis of independent assortment (2nd possibility considered by Mendel) ______ types of gametes could be formed in equal numbers?
(YyRr)

A

4
YR,yr,Yr,yR
1:1:1:1-PHENOTYPE
9:3:3:1-GENOTYPE

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47
Q

Two traits segregate ______ of each other during gamete formation.

A

Independent

48
Q

In various combinations of dihybrids traits, Mendel observed that each of 2 traits produced a ______ ratio of phenotypes in the F2 and 2 trait combination always showed a ________ ratio.

A

3:1
9:3:3:1

49
Q

What is Mendel’s Second law?

A

Law of independent assortment
-Alleles of 2 or more diff genes get sorted into gametes independently of each other

50
Q

Mendel’s _____ completely confirmed his hypothesis.

A

Testcrosses

51
Q

Describe chromosome theory of inheritance?

A

Sutton-Genes and their alleles are carried on a chromosome.

52
Q

the particular site on a chromosome at which gene is located is called the ________.

A

locus

53
Q

Name some variation of Mendel’ principles.

A

-incomplete dominance
-Co dominance
-Multiple alleles
-pleiotropy
-epistasis
-polygenic inheritance

54
Q

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE?

A

Occurs when the effects of recessive alleles can be detected to some extent in heterozygotes.

55
Q

What does incomplete dominance results in ?

A

3rd phenotype-expressed phenotype is a combination of phenotypes of both alleles.
eg red+white=red, white , pink flower in F2 generation.

56
Q

CO DOMINANCE?

A

2 diff phenotypes both make significant contributions to the appearance of third phenotype (both parental traits appear together).

57
Q

The ______ blood type does not affect blood transfusions and is frequently used in initial test to determine the _______ of a child.

A

MN
Paternity

58
Q

Multiple alleles?

A

Occurrence of a gene that exists as three or more alleles in a population.

59
Q

Pleiotropy?

A

the determination of more than one character by a single gene.

60
Q

which protein in RBCs carry oxygen throughout the body.

A

Haemoglobin

61
Q

Epistasis?

A

interaction of multiple genes where the effect of one gene influences the expression of another gene’s phenotype.

62
Q

______ occurs when 2 or more diff gene loci contribute to the same phenotype.

A

epistasis

63
Q

Polygenic inheritance?

A

combined effects of multiple genes shape the observed phenotypes.
(additive effect of 2 or more diff gene loci on a single phenotype.)

64
Q

additive effect of 2 or more diff gene loci on a single phenotype is known as _______ and the in additive effect is known as _________.

A

Additive-polygenic inheritance
in additive- epistasis

65
Q

skin color in humans is an example of ________ inheritance.

A

polygenic

66
Q

how does behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for Mendel’s principle of inheritance patterns?

A

1.diploid individual has 2 sets of homologous chromosomes.
2.2 chromosomes=2 alleles (same or diff) at same positions
3.each set comes from male or female
4.when any individual produce gametes-alleles separate- each gamete gets one allele from the pair

67
Q

genes are located on ___________.

A

chromosomes

68
Q

what is a gene locus

A

site on chromosome where gene is found

69
Q

genes can exist in 2 or more _______ alleles

A

2 or more

70
Q

recombination of unlinked genes follow which of the Mendel’s principle ______________________?

A

the chromosome basis of allele segregation, independent assortment

71
Q

what are linked genes?

A

genes that are located close together

72
Q

during meiosis close localized gene tend to be ________ to a gamete

A

passed together

73
Q

define crossing over

A

the exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of parental characteristics in offspring during the prophase of meiosis 1.

74
Q

________ accounts for the recombinant gamete formation and recombines ______ genes into assortment of alleles not found in ________.

A

crossing over
linked genes
parents

75
Q

who first demonstrated the effects of crossing over on fruit fly, ________ recombination.

A

T.H. Morgan (1900s)
phenotype

76
Q

scientific name for fruit fly is ________

A

Drosophila melanogaster

77
Q

during _______ of meiosis I, homologous chromosome synapse to form ________ and ______ occurs

A

prophase
bivalent
crossing over occurs

78
Q

how to calculate recombination frequency

A

recombinants/# total offspring *100

79
Q

use of segregation ratios to predict ____________.

A

percentage of recombinants or recombinant frequencies

80
Q

using segregation ratios to predict ______, _____ maps could be developed to help determine the position of diff ________ on the same chromosome.

A

recombinant frequencies
linkage maps
genes or loci

81
Q

who created the first linkage map and using what as a measurement?

A

using recombinant frequency as measurement, Alfred H. Sturtevant created 1 linkage map showing 5 genes on chromosome 2 of Drosophilia.

82
Q

what is the unit of linkage map and what is it equivalent to?

A

Map unit (mu)
equivalent to a recombinant offspring frequency of 1%

83
Q

the map unit is also called _______ in honour of Morgon’s discovery of ___________ and _______-.

A

centimorgan (cM)
linkage and recombination

84
Q

what theory was confirmer by Morgan and his colleagues?

A

chromosomal theory of inheritance
that genes are located on chromosomes, and the inheritance patterns of traits can be explained by the behavior of chromosomes during cell division.

85
Q

mendel’s theory of dominance and recessive variants could not account for _________ in observed 1:1 ratio.

A

inheritance of sex

86
Q

what determine the sex of the chromosome?

A

one of the chromosomes-sex chromosomes

87
Q

what about chromosome distribution in insects such as flies and grasshoppers?

A

female-XX
Male-only X, Y absent—designated as XO

88
Q

what are the sex chromosomes in birds and fishes

A

male is (XX)called ZZ
female has (XY)called ZW

89
Q

who determine the sex of offspring in birds and fishes?

A

female with (ZW) XY chromosome, whereas male have XX (ZZ)

90
Q

what about sex determination in ants and bees?

A

Sex is determined by chromosome number,
female develop from fertilized egg(diploid)
male develop from unfertilized egg(haploid)

91
Q

________ is any chromosome that is not sex chromosome.

A

autosome

92
Q

human individuals with abnormal sex chromosomes could be physically normal but _______.

A

sterile

93
Q

what is turner syndrome

A

XO individuals-partial or complete absence of one of the X chromosomes
females, could be physically moderately abnormal
mentally normal
sterile

94
Q

who are individuals with XXY chromosome

A

males, could be physical normal but always sterile, small testicles

95
Q

XXY are ______ with _________ syndrome

A

males, klinefelter syndrome

96
Q

XYY which occurs -____ in 1000 _____ births show clinical phenotype.and have normal _________ and _______. and is known as __________ syndrome

A

1 in 1000 male
sexual development, normal fertility
Jacobs syndorme

97
Q

many of the genes on sex chromosomes are for ________ traits.

A

non-sexual

98
Q

Y chromosome contains less than ______ genes, among them there are _______ dominants, however X chromosome contains over _______ genes.

A

200 genes
maleness dominants
1000 genes

99
Q

several imp human diseases are inherited as _________ recessive, give some examples and which sex has more frequency to get them.

A

X-linked recessive
ex-muscular dystrophy, red-green colour blindness and hemophilia
men>women

100
Q

define hemophilia

A

mostly inherited genetic disorder that impairs the body’s ability to make blood clots, because it lack sufficient blood clotting proteins(clotting factors)

101
Q

define extranuclear inheritance

A

aka cytoplasmic inheritance
transmission of genetic material located outside the cell nucleus, notably in mitochondria or chloroplasts.

102
Q

maternal inheritance related extranuclear inheritance?

A
  1. mitochondrial and chloroplast genome that affect offspring’s phenotype.
    2.maternal genes products that influence early development - epigenetic
    3.infectious particles- able to make horizontal gene transfer
103
Q

define epigenetic

A

study of change of organism caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of genetic code itself.

104
Q

________ is energy converting organelle of eukaryotes evolved from _________ that were engulfed by primitive _______ and developed a _______ relationship (________) with them about 1.5*10e9 years ago.

A

mitochondria
prokaryotes(proteobacteria)
eukaryotic cells
symbiotic(endosymbiosis)

105
Q

the human mitochondrial genome contains _______ bp and encodes ____ genes

A

16,569base pairs
37 genes

106
Q

extranuclear inheritance in mitochondria?

A

maternal inheritance
high mutation rate
threshold effect for disease
age-related mutations

107
Q

where are chloroplast present and what process takes place in it

A

land plants, algae and some protists
photosynthesis

108
Q

where is the origination of chloroplasts believed from

A

cyanobacteria through endosymbiosis

109
Q

how many unique genes are present in land plant chloroplasts?

A

110-120
-maternal inheritance

110
Q

define cytoplasmic inheritance and who discovered it?

A

the transmission of genes that occur outside the nucleus
Carl Erich Correns (1864-1933)

111
Q

what was correns experiment about

A

maternal inheritance in the four o clock plant (Mirabilis Jalapa)

112
Q

the non mendelian inheritance pattern discovered by correns was later traced to a gene named ________ that codes for a small_________ required for proper assembly of chloroplast ribosomes.

A

iojap
protein(chloroplastic)

113
Q

what are the 3 different types of pathogens that can deliver genetic material to eukaryotic nuclei?(horizontal gene transfer)

A

1.viruses(ssDNA,dsDNA,RNA)
2.prokaryote Agrobacterium tumefaciens(ssDNA)
3.intercellular eukaryotic parasit-Trypanasoma Cruzi(minicircle DNA)

114
Q

example of an infectious particles in plasmids ?

A

agrobacterium tumefaciens- bacterial pathogen
crown gall on a rose stem

115
Q

what is a ti plasmid

A

a tumor inducing plasmid found in pathogenic species of agrobacterium

116
Q

where does the transfer, integration and expression T-DNA in an infected plant takes place?

A

Ti Plasmid (Tumor inducing plasmid)

117
Q

what results in production of grown gall tumours?

A

transfer, integration and expression of T-DNA (Tumour DNA) in Ti plasmid In an infected plant that results in the production of crown gall tumours.

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