Genetics Flashcards
Define genetics
The scientific study of hereditary and variation or inherited characteristics
Define heredity
The passing of traits from parents to offspring
What is the purpose of cell division of multicellular organisms
Growth and repair
What is the purpose of cell division for unicellular organisms
Reproduction
What causes traits to be passed on from parent to offspring
Genetic material
Define genetic material
A term used to describe all material in an organism that stores genetic material
Where is the genetic information contained in a chromosome
DNA
What is DNA
Deoxyribonuclectic acid
What is a gene
A portion or segment of DNA molecule that carries the information that helps to produce a particular trait of an organism. Each gene occupies a specific location (aka locus) on a chromosome
What do chromosomes carry
Hundreds or even thousands of genes
What happens to chromosomes, and all the genetic information that contain, during cell division
They duplicate
Where are chromosomes found
In the nucleus of all eukaryotic cells
Are all chromosomes the same between species
No
What is a somatic cell
The body cell
What is a diploid
Cells that have two sets of chromosomes
Are humans haploid or diploids and why
Haploid because we have 46 chromosomes in each somatic cell of which 23 came from her dad and 23 came from her mom
What is the equation for a diploid human cells
2n=46
What is a haploid
Cells that have half the normal number of chromosomes
What are gametes
Human sex cells that have 23 chromosomes each and are haploid
What is the equation for haploid human sex cells
n=23
What is a polyploid
Cells contain three or more sets of chromosomes. Some plant species demonstrate this
define asexual reproduction
The production of offspring from a single parent; the genetic makeup of the offspring is identical to that of the parent
Give the advantages of asexual reproduction
No meeting part require, doesn’t have to perform specialized behaviors or possess specialize anatomy, direct and invariable heredity, quick and easy
What are the disadvantages of asexual reproduction
lacks variability and population, vulnerable to changes in the environment [cannot adapt]
What is sexual reproduction
The production of offspring to sex sells and the make up of the offspring is different from that of either parent
What are the disadvantages of sexual reproduction
Must have specialized organs to produce each sex cell, attracts predators, it takes a lot of effort
What are the advantages of sexual reproduction
It is able to adapt to the environment and this leads to evolution
Go through the cell cycle
Mitosis, Gap one [cell growth], synthesis [each of the 46 chromosomes are duplicated), gap phase 2 [cell death can occur if needed], repeat
What are the different phases of mitosis
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
What happens during prophase
The nuclear membrane starts to dissolve
What is the kinetochore
A protein structure that helps a great chromosomes to the spindle fibers
What happens during metaphase
The spindle fibers begin moving and aligning the chromosomes. Each chromosome composed of sister chromatids is pull toys center of the cell where it center meter becomes a line across the middle or equator of the cell
What happens during anaphase
Centromeres divided and this is true, totes [now referred to as chromatids] move to opposite poles of the cell. The chromosomes of being pulled by there centromeres, resulting in a distinctive pattern with the ends the chromosomes telling behind. if mitosis proceeds correctly, the same number and type of chromosomes will be found at each pole of the cell
What happens during telophase
Chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell and begin to unwind. As a do, the spindle fibers dissolve a nuclear membranes form around the chromosomes, this results into daughter nuclei
What happens during cytokinesis
The cytoplasm is divided to form two new cells. Although the nucleus is divided during mitosis, the division of the cell content two new daughter cells occurs during cytokinesis, is that a case is all separate other organelles approximately equally
Define homologous chromosomes
Matching pairs of chromosomes, similar in size and caring information for the same jeans
Define cloning
The process of producing one individual that is genetically identical to another, using a single cell or tissue [occurs commonly in a sexual reproduction]
Why is Frederick steward famous
He was a plant biologist that announced his success including a plant from a single parent cell. He was the first to do this
What was the first animal cloning experiment done with
Frogs
What is meiosis
A two-stage cell division in which the resulting daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. In every somatic cell, there are two copies of each chromosome, from each parent.
What does meiosis develop
Sex cells only
In mitosis how many cells do you end up with
2 diploid
In meiosis how many cells do you end up with
Four haploid
What are the stages of meiosis
Interphase, prophase one, metaphase one, anaphase one, telophase one, then starts the actual meiosis two, prophase two, metaphase two, and a phase 2, telophase two
What is crossing over
That occurs during prophase one where intertwined chromatids from different chromosomes exchange sections of genetic material this results in increased variation
And interface, prophase one, metaphase one and anaphase one as well as Tele phase 1 what is that all the same as
Mitosis
What happens in interphase
Did replication occurs
What happens in prophase one
Chromosomes start to shorten thicken; nuclear membranes ours is all of: centrals start to move to opposite poles and spindle fibers start to form
What is a tetrad
When chromosomes come together and homologous pairs of chromosomes of the pair is composed of a pair of sister chromatids and the whole structure is referred to as a tetrad because each pair of chromosomes is composed of four chromatids
What is synapsis
Each sister chromatid and a twines with a sister, if mismatching Molitas call Mazzone
What happens during metaphase one
The tetrads [made up of pairs of homologous chromosomes] align centimeters across the middle of the cell
What happens in anaphase one
Mall just chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. This is called reduction division whereby only one chromosome from each mall sound and each new daughter cell
What happens in Tele phase 1
Nuclear membrane starts to form around the chromosomes and the cell begins to divide. These cells are now haploid and are no longer identical
What happens during prophase two
Nuclear membrane dissolves in the spindle fibers begin to form
What happens during metaphase two
Chromosomes align across the middle of the cell such that sister chromatids are on opposite sides of the metaphase plate
What happens during anaphase two
Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. The nuclear membrane begins to form around chromatid, now called chromosome
What happens during telophase two
Second nuclear division is complete and the second division of cytoplasm occurs. Four haploid daughter cells akagametes have been produced. The recombination of genetic information that occurs during crossing over means that all 4 gametes are genetically different
When lining up and Meiosis one, do the chromosomes lineup in a specific order
Nope and this is what causes genetic variation
Where does meiosis take place
In the testes and ovaries
What is the production of sperm cells called
Spermatogenesis
What is the production of egg cells [] called
oogenesis
What are some differences between the mayo sis in testes and ovaries
In males, the cytoplasm is evenly divided among all four daughter cells. And females the majority of the cytoplasm goes to one of the daughter cells resulting in three polar bodies
What is a polar body
And over that cannot produce a child
When do females produce all potential eggs
A few weeks before she’s even born
When do males produce their sperm cells
Hundreds of millions every day
What is a zygote
When the sperm and egg meet Sue fertilization, then the two haploid cells joined to make a diploid cell not is a zygote
What is the number of parent cells in mitosis and meiosis
One for both
What is the number of divisions in mitosis and meiosis
One and two
What is the number of daughter cells produced in animals in mitosis and meiosis
Two daughter cells for mitosis and for functional sperm cells for me oh sis and one functional egg and three polar bodies for the females in meiosis
What’s the size of daughter cells relative to the parent cell in mitosis
It’s the same
What’s the size of daughter cells relative to parent cell in meiosis
For sperm cells are very small compared to the XL
What are the number of chromosomes in parent cell in mitosis and Milos us
46
What is the number of chromosomes per daughter cell at the end of the process of mitosis and Mieosis
46 and 23
What’s the genetic comparison of chromosomes and parent cell versus daughter cell in mitosis and meiosis
In mitosis is the exact same as a parent and in meiosis is genetically different
Where does mitosis occur
All over the body
What is the function of mitosis
Cellular reproduction and General growth or a pair of the body
What’s the function of meiosis
Genetic diversity through sexual reproduction and to form an embryo
Is mitosis sexual or asexual
Asexual
Is meiosis asexual or sexual
Sexual
What are the advantages of mitosis
Identical copy of the parent, allows for cells to mass produce with identical properties [allow skin to look the same], faster production
What are the advantages of meiosis
Diversity, disease comes not every cell be affected because the Danny’s different, Millatti to change and adapt to the environment
What are the disadvantages of mitosis
If you have cells will continue to replicate, can produce offspring better than parent cells, difficult to adapt to environment because of lack of genetic variability
Disadvantages of meiosis
Cannot reproduce on its own, takes time/energy a loy of it
What is a karyotype
A picture of chromosomes that have been arranged according to number, size, shape or some other characteristic
In chromosome 23 for females and for males what are they
Females are XX and males are XY
Define non-disjunction
The failure of homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell during meiosis; results in an abnormal number of chromosomes in the daughter cells
When can nondisjunction occurs
During meiosis one and meiosis two
Define trisomy
A chromosomal of normally in which there are three homes in place of a mall just pair. It occurs because of gametes containing 24 chromosomes and 723 chromosomes fertilizers with a normalgamete
What is monosomy
A chromosomal abnormality in which there is a single chromosome in place of the homologous pair. This occurs because again meet containing 22 chromosomes in zone 23 chromosomes fertilizer than normal gamete
Who is considered to be the father of genetics
Gregor Mendel
What did Mendel do
a monk who studied garden Pea plants and crossed breeding them. He kept his records and his experiments was taking plants and using specific traits and cross breeding them to produce offspring.
What was Mendels first experiment
He crossed true breeding white flowered pea plant with the true breeding purple flowered Pea plant
What was the result of Mendels first experiment
The F1 generation had all purple flowers
When Mendel cross bread the flowers of the first generation, what was the results
Purple and white flowers appeared [3 purple to 1 White]
What is the first law of medallion inheritance
In the F1 generation, the “dominant factor quote was expressed while the “recessive factor “remain hidden until it was expressed in the F2 generation
What does the law of segregation state
- Organisms inherit two copies of genes, one from each parent; for each characteristic an organism carries 2 genes – one from each parent
- organisms donate only one copy of each gene to their gametes because the genes separate during gamete formation [during meiosis]
Define test cross
When you breed/cross phenotypically Delma individual with if we don’t typically recessive individual to help determine the genotype of the phenotypically dominant individual
Define trait
A particular version of a characteristic that is inherited such as hair color or blood type
Are traits different than characteristics
Yes, trait represents variation within a characteristic for example I color is a characteristic where is blue eyes brown eyes are trait
Define a true breeding organism
An organism that produces offspring that are genetically identical for one or more treats when self pollinated or when crossing with other true breeding organisms for the same traits.
Define hybrids
The offspring of two different true breeding organisms
Define cross
The successful meeting or breeding of two organisms from distinct genetic lines
Define P generation
The parent plants used in a cross
Define F1 generation
The offspring of a P generation cross
Define F2 generation
The offspring of an F1 generation cross
Define mono hybrid
The offspring of two different true breeding organisms that differ in only one characteristic
Define mono hybrid cross
Across designed to study the inheritance of only one trait
Define allele
A specific form of a gene
Define heterozygous
Describes an individual that carries two different alleles forgiven characteristic
Define homozygous
Describes individual that carries to the same alleles for a given characteristic
Define genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual [BB -homozygous…Bb-heterozygous)
Define phenotype
The individuals outward appearance with respect to specific characteristics
Define dominant allele
Filial that, if present, is always expressed. This is due to the fact that the dominant allele usually codes for a working protein roads recessive alleles not
Define recessive allele
The allele that is expressed only if it is not in the presence of the dominant allele, that is if the individual is homozygous for the recessive allele
What is complete dominance inheritance
If there is a dominant then it will “win “and the end result will be that trait even if there’s another
What is a punnets square
A diagram that summarizes every possible combination of each a Leo from each parent; a tool for determining the probability of a single offspring having a particular genotype
What is complete dominance
A situation where an allele but will determine the phenotype, regardless of the presence of the other allele
What is incomplete dominance
A situation where neither allele donates other both have an influence on the individual, results in partial expression of both traits
What is code dominance
A situation where both alleles are expressed Foley to produce offspring with us third phenotype. Example was in southern cattle, when I Redbull is crossed with a white cow, it will produce a rowan calf which has pure white and pure red hair
Is human blood a codominant or dominant trait
Both
What is an antigen
Protein that sits on the cell and as a marker to identify it
What are the different phenotypes of blood
A, B, AB, O
What are the genotypes of blood type a
IAIA and IAi
What are the genotypes for blood type B
IBIB, IBi
What are the genotypes for blood type AB
IAIB
What is the genotype for blood type O
ii
What type of blood can blood type a recieve from
A and O
What type of blood in blood type B received from
B and O
What type of blood can blood type AB receive from
A, B and O as well as AB
What type of blood can blood type O receive from
O
Who can blood type a give to
A and AB
Who can blood type B give to
B & AB
Who can blood type AB give two
A B
Who can blood type O give to
All of them
What is a pedigree
Diagram of individuals ancestors used to analyze Italian in Heritance of certain trait; also use for selective breeding of plants and animals
What are the modes of inheritance
Autosomal dominant, AutoZone will recessive, sex linked, X-linked, Y-linked
Define autosomal inheritance
Inheritance of alleles located on AutoZone mole [nonsex] chromosomes
Define AutoZone will dominant
If a disease or trait is autosomal dominant, you only need one copy of the gene for the parents to get the disease or treat
Define autosomal recessive
If a disease or treat is autosomal recessive you need to get two copies of the gene in order for the disease or treat to develop
Define sex linked
Describes an allele that is found on one of the sex chromosomes, X or Y, and when passed on to offspring is expressed
Define X-linked
Phenotypic expression of an allele that is found on the X-chromosome. If a male inherits the X-chromosome from a mother who carries the recessive allele, he will express the disorder because the Y chromosome does not mask effects of the alley. A female would have to get the recessive allele from both her mother and father in order to get the recessive sex linked disorder
Define Y-linked
Phenotypic expression of an allele that is found on the Y chromosome. There are fewer wiling to disorders because the Y chromosome is small and therefore does not carry as many genes, plus there is reduced fertility in males with wiling to disorders
