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Molecular Biology and Genetics > Genes and proteins > Flashcards

Genes and proteins Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards
1
Q

With what does he central dogma of molecular biology deal?

A

The detailed residue-by-residue transfer of sequential information.

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2
Q

What does the central dogma state?

A

Information cannot be transferred back from protein to protein or nucleic acid.

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3
Q

What is the genotype?

A

The genetic make-up of an individual.

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4
Q

What is the phenotype?

A

The physical traits.

Characteristics expressed by individual.

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5
Q

Why do regulatory systems and pathways interact?

A

To form complex networks.

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6
Q

What do complex networks add to most G-P maps?

A

Additional complexity.

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7
Q

Fr what does genotype code?

A

Phenotype.

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8
Q

What did George Beadle and Edward Tatum suggested in 1941?

A

Genes act through enzyme production.

Each gene is responsible to produce a single enzyme –> affects a single step in metabolic pathway.

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9
Q

How was the hypothesis of Beadle and Tatum characterised?

A

Oversimplification.

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10
Q

How is the reformulation of: ‘one gene-one polypeptide’ characterised?

A

Too simple to describe the relationship between genes and proteins.

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11
Q

What did Beadle and Tatum’s experiment found?

A

Mutations in each of the ‘transformational steps’ between precursor and final products n biosynthesis of arginine.

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12
Q

By what was each step in Beadle and Tatum’s experiment undertaken?

A

By an enzyme encoded by different DNA sections/genes.

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13
Q

By what can enzymes be formed?

A

Multiple protein subunits.

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14
Q

What can enzymes include?

A

Non-protein factors.

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15
Q

What do non-protein factors include?

A

RNA.

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16
Q

What can genes produce when they are processed in different ways?

A

Similar, different proteins.

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17
Q

Of what are eukaryote genes composed?

A

Exons.

Introns.

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18
Q

What do exons code for?

A

Polypeptide sections.

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19
Q

What do polypeptide sections make up?

A

The whole protein.

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20
Q

When does splicing occur?

A

After transcription.

Before translation.

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21
Q

What do differences in splicing alter?

A

Set of exons.

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22
Q

What do exons produce once they are translated?

A

The final protein.

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23
Q

What do variations in splicing effect?

A

Protein structure.

Protein function.

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24
Q

Where can modification of key translational controls like start and stop codons result for proteins?

A

Missing normal N-terminal.

Longer C-terminals.

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25
Q

What is the N-terminal of a protein?

A

Front section.

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26
Q

What are C-terminals of a protein?

A

End sections.

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27
Q

For which organism was in vitro transcription first demonstrated?

A

Escherichia coli RNA Polymerase.

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28
Q

Who did first demonstrate in vitro transcription for E. coli?

A

Sam Weiss.

Jerard Hurwitz.

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29
Q

Where could RNA Polymerase be visualised?

A

On DNA.

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30
Q

How could producing ‘tails’ of RNA by electron microscopy and transcription be followed?

A

By using 32P. NTPs.

A, C, G, U.

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31
Q

Of how many steps does transcription consist?

A

3.

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32
Q

What are the 3 stages of transcription?

A
  1. Initiation.
  2. Elongation.
  3. Termination.
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33
Q

What did analysis of various E. coli mutations found about the 3 steps of transcription?

A

Any stage could be interrupted to control gene expression.

Many antibiotics target one/more of stages.

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34
Q

By how many subunits is the Core Enzyme composed?

A

5.

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35
Q

Which are the 5 subunits the Core Enzyme is composed of?

A
  1. 2.
  2. α.
  3. β.
  4. β’ .
  5. ω.
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36
Q

What is the fifth subunit the Holoenzyme includes?

A

Sigma: σ.

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37
Q

What is Sigma factor of Holoenzyme?

A

A very large protein complex.

38
Q

What does RNAP synthesise?

A

mRNA.
rRNA.
tRNA.

39
Q

For which activity is the Core enzyme required?

A

The polymerization.

40
Q

For what is σ factor required?

A

Correct initiation of transcription.

41
Q

What does σ target in transcription?

A

Upstream region of a gene = operator.

-35 and -10 sites.

42
Q

What do bacteria have to regulate different gene groups?

A

Different Sigma factors.

43
Q

How is the fact that bacteria have f=different genes to regulate different gene groups characterised?

A

One of the highest-order means of regulating gene expression in bacteria.

44
Q

By what is transcription controlled?

A

Non-coding DNA sequences.

45
Q

Of what do genes consist?

A

Central ‘coding’ sequence.

46
Q

To what is the central ‘coding’ sequence translated?

A

The sequence of amino acids.
An up-stream promoter region.
Down-stream terminator region.

47
Q

What do amino acids make?

A

The protein.

48
Q

What do the up-stream promoter region and the down-stream terminator region control?

A

Gene expression.

49
Q

What is the difference between eukaryote gene structure and prokaryote genes?

A

Eukaryote is more complex.

50
Q

What is the similarity between eukaryote gene structure and prokaryote genes?

A

Coding.

Non-coding sections.

51
Q

When does initiation of transcription begin?

A

When RNAP binds promoter region of double-stranded DNA.

52
Q

What happens in transcription?

A

Two strands melt apart.

Base-pairing first nucleotide to coding strand.

53
Q

How do transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes?

A

Tightly coupled.

54
Q

How do ribosomes exist in prokaryotes?

A

Lining up along nascent mRNA.

55
Q

What do ribosomes produce in prokaryotes?

A

Proteins.

56
Q

What does RNAP produce when going along DNA?

A

mRNA.

57
Q

What did tight coupling of transcription and translation in prokaryotes meant?

A

In vitro transcription-translation was possible with 3H production.

14C labelled proteins allow protein functions to be investigated. (could not in cells/with cell lyses.

58
Q

What does eukaryotic mRNA undergo?

A

Modifications.

59
Q

Where does eukaryotic mRNA undergo modifications?

A

In nucleus.

60
Q

When does eukaryotic mRNA undergo modifications?

A

Before being exported and translated.

61
Q

What are some modifications eukaryotic mRNA undergoes?

A

5’ capping.
3’ poly-A-tailing.
Splicing.

62
Q

Where do alternative splicing patterns to remove exons and link introns result?

A

Expression of related proteins.

63
Q

What do proteins consist of?

A

Amino acid chains linked together in a specific order.

64
Q

How is the specific order of linked amino acid chains known?

A

The primary structure.

From N-terminus to C-terminus.

65
Q

What can the peptide chain then adopt?

A

Different structures.

66
Q

How do different structures of peptide chain occur?

A

Fold around itself.

67
Q

How is the final protein formed by different peptides?

A

When they interact with one another.

68
Q

How can amino acids be categorised?

A

By:
Polarity.
Charge.
Size.

69
Q

How many levels of polypeptide chains folding and interacting with each other exist?

A

4.

70
Q

Why do polypeptide chains fold and interact with each other?

A

To produce the final three-dimensional shape of the mature protein.

71
Q

What does the genetic code use?

A

Triplets of DNA bases.

72
Q

Why does the genetic code use triplets of DNA bases?

A

To encode the amino acids in a peptide chain.

73
Q

What is the code of amino acids?

A

Almost universal.

74
Q

How many combinations of A, C, G and T ecist?

A

> 20.

75
Q

What do some amino acids have?

A

> 1 triplet.

76
Q

As what are some triplets used?

A

Stop signals.

77
Q

What happens to amino acids in the ribosome?

A

They are matched to base triplets by tRNAs.

78
Q

What does the universal code link?

A

RNA triplets to amino acids.

DNA triplets with amino acids. (more helpful).

79
Q

What does the expression of reading frame produce?

A

A protein.

80
Q

What must the reading frame have?

A

An appropriate start codon.

An in-frame stop codon.

81
Q

What is usually the start codon?

A

AUG.

82
Q

What are usually the stop codons?

A

UAA.
UAG.
UGA.

83
Q

What happens in translation?

A

Genetic information encoded by DNA, transcribed into mRNA –> converted into amino acid sequences/polypeptides.

84
Q

By which factor is the template strand of DNA double-stranded helix used?

A

By RNAP.

85
Q

What does the template strand of DNA produce when used by RNAP?

A

mRNA.

86
Q

What does the amino acid sequence follow?

A

The coding strand sequence.

87
Q

What are transfer RNAs?

A

Short RNA molecules.

88
Q

Into what structure do tRNAs fold?

A

‘t’.

‘L’.

89
Q

Where is the neck of tRNAs linked?

A

To a specific amino acid.

90
Q

Where is the bulging foot of tRNA matched?

A

To the mRNA triplet.

91
Q

Of what is anticodon composed?

A

Three bases that interact with mRNA.

92
Q

Where do ribosomes shuffle?

A

Along mRNA transcript.

Molecular Biology and Genetics (15 decks)

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