General Pathology

Question 1

An increase in stress on an organ leads to

Answer 1

Increase in organ size via:

1. Hypertrophy
2. Hyperplasia

Question 2

A decrease in stress on an organ leads to

Answer 2

Atrophy

Question 3

A change in stress leads to

Answer 3

Metaplasia (change in cell type)

Question 4

Mechanism(S) involved in hypertrophy

Answer 4

1. Gene activation
2. Protein Synthesis
3. Production of organelles

Question 5

Mechanisms involved in hyperplasia

Answer 5

New cells from stem cells

Question 6

Mechanism involved in metaplasia

Answer 6

Reprogramming of stem cells

Question 7

Cells that cannot undergo hyperplasia

Answer 7

1. Cardiac cells
2. Skeletal muscle
3. Neurons

Question 8

Decrease in the number of cells occur via

Answer 8

Apoptosis

Question 9

Decrease in cell size occur via

Answer 9

Ubiquitin proteosome degradation of cytoskeleton and autophagy of cellular components

Question 10

Metaplasia involves change in

Answer 10

One surface epithelium to another (squamous, columnar, or urothelial)

Question 11

Is metaplasia reversible or irreversible

Answer 11

Reversible

Question 12

Which vitamin deficiency can result in metaplasia

Answer 12

Vit.A deficiency

Question 13

Example of mesenchymal tissue that can undergo metaplasia

Answer 13

Muscle: myositis ossificans (connective tissue within muscle changes to bone during healing or trauma)

Question 14

Dysplasia

Answer 14

Disordered cell growth

Question 15

Aplasia

Answer 15

Failure of cell production during embryogenesis

Question 16

Hypoplasia

Answer 16

Decrease in cell production during embryogenesis, resulting in a relatively small organ (streak ovary in Turner Syndrome)

Question 17

When does cellular injury occur

Answer 17

When a stress exceeds a cells ability to adapt

Question 18

Common causes of cellular injury

Answer 18

Inflammation
Nutrition deficiency or excess
Hypoxia 
Trauma 
Genetic mutations

Question 19

What is hypoxia?

Answer 19

Low oxygen delivery to tissue

Question 20

What is the function of oxygen in the ETC

Answer 20

Act as a electron acceptor

Question 21

Consequence of impaired oxidative phosphorylation

Answer 21

Decreased ATP

Question 22

Consequences of low ATP

Answer 22

Disruption of:

1. Na/k pump, resulting in sodium and water buildup in the cell
2. Ca2+ pump, resulting in high cytosolic ca concn. (Enzyme activation)
3. Aerobic glycolysis, resulting in switch to anaerobic glycolysis. Lactic acid buildup results in low pH, which denatures proteins and precipitates DNA

Question 23

Causes of hypoxia

Answer 23

Ischemia
Hypoxemia
Decrease o2 carrying capacity

Question 24

What is Ischemia

Answer 24

Decrease blood flow through an organ

Question 25

Causes of ischemia

Answer 25

1. Decrease arterial perfusion (atherosclerosis) 2. Decrease venous drainage (Budd-Chiari Syndrome) 3. Shock (generalized HypoTN resulting in poor tissue perfusion)

Question 26

What is hypoxemia

Answer 26

Low partial pressure of oxygen in blood (PaO2 <60mm Hg, SaO2 <90%)

Question 27

Causes of hypoxemia

Answer 27

1. High altitude: decrease ATM pressure, decrease PAO2 2. Hypoventilation: increased PACO2, decreased PAO2 (COPD) 3. Diffusion defect: cannot push O2 into blood due to thick barrier 4. V/Q mismatch : blood bypasses oxygenated lung (right to left shunts); oxygenated air cannot reach blood (atelectasis)

Question 28

Causes of decrease O2 carrying capacity

Answer 28

Hb loss or dysfunction: 1. Anemia (decrease RBC mass) normal PaO2 & SaO2 2. Carbon monoxide poisoning: binds more avidly to Hb (decr. SaO2) 3. Methemoglobinemia: Fe3+ cannot bind O2 (decr. SaO2)

Question 29

CO poisoning C/F

Answer 29

Cherry- red skin

Question 30

Early sign of CO exposure

Answer 30

Headache

Question 31

Methemoglobinemia

Answer 31

When Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+ which cannot bind O2

Question 32

Causes of metHB

Answer 32

1. Oxidant stress: sulfa and nitrate drugs or newborn

Question 33

C/F of methemoglobinemia

Answer 33

Cyanosis with chocolate colored blood

Question 34

Treatment for methemoglobinemia

Answer 34

Methylene blue (reduces Fe3+ back to Fe2+)

Question 35

Hallmark of reversible cellular injury

Answer 35

1. Cytosolic swelling: effacement of microvill &membrane blebs 2. rER swelling: decrease protein synthesis

Question 36

Hallmark of irreversible cellular injury

Answer 36

Membrane damage: 1. Plasma membrane: enzymes leak, calcium enters cell 2. Mitochondrial membrane: loss of ETC (IMM), cytochrome c leaks 3. Lysosomes membrane: enzymes leak and become activated by high intracellular calcium