Gender And Society Flashcards
Feminism & Changing views of gender
Feminism: Refers to the many political, philosophical, economic, psychological and sociological movements or ‘waves’ which have sought to free women from male dominance and give them independence and dignity
Since Mary Wollstonecraft wrote ‘a vindication for the rights of woman’, there has been a shift or revolution in the way women are perceived by society. Feminism has gone through many waves and these mark historical developments and shifts in aims.
First wave
The first wave focused on equality of rights. Harriet Taylor forcefully set out arguments in ‘enfranchisement of women’ for the right to vote and equality of rights. She argued that a true partnership between genders means equal pay and financial independence. First wave feminists in recent years have brought social reform such as state-funded childcare, flexible working hours and maternity leave for women.
Second wave
Women realised true equality was only possible once men’s and women’s mindsets changed. Betty Friedans research showed that although middle class women of the late 1950s played the role of the dutiful wife and homemaker, they were far from fulfilled, her book gave women the courage to abandon traditional expectations & pursue their own careers and independent lives.
Women’s false-consciousness
Another approach to the secular gender debate focuses on the role women themselves need to play in tackling these issues. Simone de Beauvoir‘s influence has been instrumental in transforming equality feminism to consider deep-seated prejudices which regard women as inferior to men. de Beauvoir’s argument isn’t just that men’s mindset needs to change but also women’s. She argued even the most independent women suffer a false-consciousness which supports the typical gender roles. until this changes women can never be free.
In her influential book ‘the second sex’ she acknowledges that women have allowed themselves to be the second sex and act the role of wife, lover or sex object according to the needs of men. While they continue this false-consciousness they cannot live fulfilling, authentic and liberated lives. Women’s existence has been defined by men and women have allowed this to happen without realising.
We are not born with gender roles. Modern women do not have the freedom to choose their gender role; they have become trapped and defined by society, which includes the expectations of other women placed upon each other.
de Beauvoir argued women have for too long accepted and encouraged themselves to believe in ‘the eternal feminine’, the idea that their role is to be what men expect. They have allowed themselves to become passive bystanders.
The aim of her book was to expose all areas where women have considered their roles and duties as intrinsic to their sex. Women are free to choose their lifestyle as they please. They may choose not to conform, or opt to become mothers or do jobs typically assigned to men.
Women in society
We can see how much de Beauvoir’s vision has come true today. Women are in the front-line armed forces, top judges, managing directors, scientists etc. but many say there is still much to be done. There is a persistent divide in traditionally male roles, with female minorities in these industries who are often paid less for the same job. There is also the issue of the glass ceiling for women trying to reach the top jobs in science, politics and legal professions.
Changing secular views of gender and gender roles
It is generally accepted that a person’s sex refers to biology. Gender is more complex and taken to mean traits or ways of thinking and behaving. It might be reasonable to think that sex determines gender but in the last 200 years there have been many changes. In the 18th century women would have understood their role as marriage, children and caring for her husband, but a modern women almost certainly does not define herself like this. The issue is whether gender is only partially related to sex or entirely a social construct and result of upbringing.
Gender and power
One influential secular approach is to abandon the distinction between thee two and focus on the problem from the perspective of power. This area of though prefers the word sexuality over gender because it includes sexual practices. This thought is related to Marx’s ideas on how human interactions are usually about power and control. This analysis comes from Michel Foucault, who looked at human sexual history and demonstrated that human sexuality cannot be defined in binary terms but covers a spectrum of sexualities. Foucault argues that sex is for pleasure, companionship and education. Controlling sexual practices is a useful means of maintaining power. A good example of the scientia sexualis (science of sexuality) can be seen in the church’s place in western society, controlling and regulating sexual practices and gender roles through marriage. As the church’s influence has weakened, the role has been replaced by doctors, psychoanalysts and sociologists who have each imposed ideas on the correct sexual behaviour.
Sex and gender
One of the most controversial debates is the significance of sex and gender. The nature/nurture debate is still and issue and the arguments may be summarised in two approaches to view the sex-gender relationship:
The essentialist: There are distinctive feminine and masculine characteristics which are intrinsic to nature. Women’s bodies are designed to bear children and their identity is naturally to be more nurturing and domestic. Men’s bodies are more muscular and so their gender role is to be competitive in the workplace.
The existential: Biological sex doesn’t really matter and gender is the product of nurture through upbringing and culture. Male-dominated societies have objectified and sexualised women’s bodies. In some cultures curvy women are more attractive than slim ones and in others breasts are not considered sexual while lips or eyes are.
Order of nature
According to Genesis 1, men and women are created in the image of God and their primary roles are to reproduce and maintain the natural order. There are natural gender distinctions but these become exaggerated after the fall when God commands women to be mothers and be ruled by their husbands, while men work and provide for the family. This view says there is a natural order that men operate in the public sphere while women rule the private, domestic sphere. Although the biblical principles generally hold true, there are example where this is developed and challenged.
God’s covenant ideal
The effects of the fall mean that human nature is so distorted that men and women cannot live according to natural order alone. God re-establishes these relationships through a series of biblical commands. In the OT Jeremiah looks forward to a new social order with God. Jeremiah’s covenant is based on the heart and relationships. This notion of covenant is central to jesus’ teaching and his message appears to offer especially women a liberation from their gender role.
In a passage of a letter by St Paul, he describes the new covenant’s effect on gender roles as follows:
‘There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male or female, for all of you are one in Jesus Christ’.
Most would not take this passage at face value because it is more likely that Paul meant a new social order based on values of friendship and cooperation free from existing social structures where were unfair. This vision of a more balanced society can be seen as a challenge to the natural order of the time. But there are ways in which it was adapted pragmatically. There are several passages with household rules, with an example from Ephesians:
Women: ‘wives be subject to your husbands as your are to the lord’ and obey because the husband is ‘the head of the wife just as christ is the head of the church.’
There has been discussion what is meant by ‘head’, which is traditionally taken as the wife must be subservient to her husband’s will. But ‘head’ may also mean source of life, putting the emphasis on the relationship and not authority.
Men: ‘husbands love your wives just as christ loved the church’.
St paul says he should love his wife as much as he loves his own body, so he should nourish and her for her. Body here also means the relationship.
There are many other rules, all of which reflect the patriarchal times which presupposed male control of the wife. This is true in Corinthians when Paul forbids women to speak in church and should seek to be educated by their husbands at home.
