gender Flashcards
sex + gender (A01)
difference between sex and gender is that sex is innate in nature whereas gender is at least partly environmental- would suggest that person’s sex cannot be changed- person’s gender however is seen to be more open concept- assumed that person may be more ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ depending on social context they are in
Imperato-McGinley et al conducted study on unique family known as Batista family who lived in Dominican Republic- Four of children were identified as being female at birth and were raised as such however they were actually genetically male- very rare genetic condition meant that when hormonal changes occurred in puberty their vaginas closed over and they developed penises- All of boys abandoned their female gender and identified as male from that point forward- would suggest that gender is flexible
sex role stereotypes (A01)
Societies expectations of what roles are seen to be appropriate for males or females are often communicated and reinforced by parents, teachers and media eg. Furnham and Farrager analysed TV adverts and found that men are more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in professional contexts whereas women were depicted in familial roles within domestic settings
Although some sex role stereotypes have an element of truth behind them many do not which leads to sexist views being formed eg. recent research has found that women do seem to cope better with multi-tasking than males but there is no strong evidence to suggest that women struggle to control their emotions in work place
Androgyny (A01)
show an even balance of qualities or characteristics that are typically associated w/genders-term comes from combined ‘Andro’ meaning ‘male’ and ‘gyny’ meaning ‘female’
Both males and females can be described as being androgynous eg. individual who is aggressive and competitive at work but kind and sensitive parent is displaying typically male and female characteristics
Androgynous individuals tend to have more positive psychological health outcomes than typically masculine or typically feminine individuals
measuring androgyny: Bem sex role inventory (BSRI)
Bem – designed Bem Sex Role Inventory to measure androgyny- self-report w/60 items all rated on seven point likert scale- 20 items are related to stereotypically masculine characteristics
20 items are related to stereotypically female characteristics and 20 items are gender-neutral filler items scores are calculated to identify individuals overall type- BSRI is an indicator or psychological well-being and mental health rather than just having masculine or feminine qualities
Scoring of BSRI - Scores are then classified on two dimensions – masculinity – feminity and androgynous – undifferentiated
Androgyny and measuring androgyny-Bem sex role inventory: supporting research for positive correlation between androgyny and good mental health (A03) 1
P: supporting research for positive correlation between androgyny and good mental health
E: particularly in relation to lower levels of depression in androgynous females- Androgynous college males also scored lower on social introversion than feminine females- findings therefore support importance of androgyny as an indicator of positive mental health
E: furthermore Peters and Cantrell used BSRI to provide supporting evidence that androgynous females had best quality of relationship supporting idea of positive condition and it being associated w/higher interpersonal functioning than individuals who are predominantly masculine or feminine
L: Therefore this increases validity of BSRI as measure of psychological well being
Androgyny and measuring androgyny-Bem sex role inventory: supporting research evidence for correlation between positive mental health and androgyny criticised (A03) 2
P: supporting research evidence for correlation between positive mental health and androgyny critics argue that androgyny is not always associated w/positive mental health
E+E: eg. androgynous individuals may demonstrate negative masculine characteristics eg. aggressiveness and negative feminine characteristics such as being too timid in certain situations- therefore criticises Bem’s idea of positive psychological wellbeing
L: strength of BSRI is that it has good test-retest reliability. Research has demonstrated high correlation co-efficient of .76 to .94 over a 4-week period and shorter version of test which has 30 items has improved test-retest reliability w/correlation of .90- therefore suggests that inventory is reliable way to measure androgyny
Androgyny and measuring androgyny-Bem sex role inventory: temporal validity have been questioned (A03) 3
P: temporal validity have been questioned
E+E: bc it was created by data generated from American students in 1970s and typical gender behaviour may have changed since then eg. more contemporary research was conducted on group of 400 undergraduates who were asked to rate items on BSRI as masculine or feminine only two of items were still considered to be masculine or feminine
L: therefore suggests that BSRI is outdated as measure of androgyny
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: role of hormones (A01)
Chromosomes initially determine person’s sex but most gender development occurs through influence of hormones-Prenatally in womb, hormones act upon brain development and cause development of reproductive organs-At puberty burst of hormonal activity triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic hair-Males and females produce many of same hormones but in different concentrations
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender (A01)
biological perspective, sex and gender are same Behavioural, psychological and social differences between sexes are seen to be result of anatomical, chromosomal and hormonal differences in body-From this perspective our biological sex determines our gender development
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: role of chromosomes (A01)
46 chromosomes in human body which are arranged into pairs-Each person has 23 pairs of chromosomes Each of these chromosomes carries hundreds of genes containing instructions about physical and behavioural characteristics such as eye colour and predisposition to certain mental illnesses
One pair of chromosomes are called sex chromosomes because they determine an individual’s biological sex A female’s chromosomal structure is XX and male is XY
A mother’s egg always contains an X chromosome sperm fertilising egg will carry either an X or Y chromosome- If carries an X baby will then have XX chromosomes and be female if it carries a Y then baby will have XY chromosomes and be male
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: testosterone (A01)
male hormone which is produced prenatally and controls development of male sex organs- Testosterone also affects brain development both prenatally and later in childhood
Much research has focussed on behavioural effects of testosterone and its link to aggression- Human and animal studies have demonstrated influence of increased testosterone on aggressive behaviour
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: oestrogen (A01)
Oestrogen is female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation- default gender is female and so females do not need hormones to direct prenatal gender development
plays major role from puberty onwards promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and directing menstrual cycle also causes some women to experience heightened emotions and irritability during their menstrual cycle
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: oxytocin (A01)
Women typically produce oxytocin in much larger amounts than men and is sometimes referred to as love hormone- released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth and makes new mother feel ‘in love’ w/baby
hormone stimulates lactation making it possible for women to breast feed and reduces stress hormone cortisol facilitating bonding fact that men produce less Oxytocin has fuelled stereotype that men are less interested in intimacy and closeness in relationship
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: supporting evidence (A03) 1
P: supporting evidence in prisons and transgender
E+E: Dabbs et al found in prison population that offenders w/highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. Van Goozen et al studied transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment and being injected w/hormones of the opposite sex Transgender women showed decrease in aggression and visuo-spatial skills whilst transgender men showed opposite
L: support role of sex hormones in gender-related behaviour such as aggression
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: contradictory evidence (A03) 2
P: contradictory evidence
E+E: Research by Tricker et al gave males either 10 weekly injections of testosterone or placebo and found no significant differences in aggression- consistent w/ further research which has found that sex hormones had no consistent effect on gender development
L: questions view that sex hormones determine behaviour
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: research to cross cultural gender differences has been used to criticise role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender (A03) 3
P: research to cross cultural gender differences has been used to criticise role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender
E+E: Mead conducted research to three tribes in Papua New Guinea- In Arapesh both males and females displayed non-aggressive gentle typically feminine behaviour-In Mundugumor tribe both males and females behaved in an masculine way- aggressive and assertive and in Tchambuli tribe sex role behaviour was completely reversed
L: therefore suggests that environment has larger influence on gender development as if main cause was biological then same differences would be seen across all tribes
role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: supporting evidence in case studies (A03) 4
P: supporting evidence in David Reimers case
E+E: findings highlight significance role biology plays in gender identity and development David was raised as girl after botched circumcision but despite social and environmental influences he struggled w/his assigned gender identity-case emphasizes that biological factors such as genetics and hormonal influences can have profound impact on an individual’s sense of self often overriding social conditioning
L: strength bc it shows eventual decision by David to identify as male later in life supports argument that biological predispositions are crucial in understanding gender identity-Overall this case serves as critical example of complex interplay between biology and environment in shaping person’s identity
Atypical sex chromosome patterns: Klinefelter’s syndrome (A01)
Individuals who have this condition are biologically male w/anatomical appearance of males and have an additional X chromosome-sex chromosome structure is XXY-Approximately 1 in 1000 males have this condition-Diagnosis often occurs accidently via medical examination for some unrelated condition
Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s syndrome: physical characteristics (A01)
.Reduced body hair
.Underdeveloped genitals
.Some breast development at puberty and ‘softening’ or ‘rounding’ of body contours
.More susceptible to health problems found in females such as breast cancer
Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s syndrome: psychological characteristics (A01)
.Poorly developed language skills and reading ability
· Passive and shy
· Lack of interest in sexual activity
· Tend not to respond well in stressful situations
Atypical sex chromosome patterns: Turners syndrome (A01)
caused by an absence of one of two allocated X chromosomes and is referred to as XO- means individual has 45 chromosomes rather than usual 46 occurs in about 1 in 2000 females at birth
Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Turners syndrome: physical characteristics (A01)
.Underdeveloped ovaries leading to lack of monthly periods
· Do not develop breasts at puberty and instead have broad chest
· Low set ears and webbed neck
· Physically immature and retain appearance of pre-pubescent girls
Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Turners syndrome: psychological characteristics (A01)
.Higher than average reading ability
· Lower performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical skills
Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome: practical application (A03) 1
P: research has practical applications
E+E: Herlihy showed that individuals identified and treated from very young age has significant benefits compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood-Further research is likely to lead to earlier diagnosis and an increased understanding of those issues faced by those syndromes
L: Such research will therefore have direct benefit to people who have these atypical chromosomal patterns as well as increasing our understanding of atypical development
Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome: Ps used in studies into atypical sex chromosomes are unique (A03) 3
P: Ps used in studies into atypical sex chromosomes are unique
E+E: Individuals w/unusual conditions particularly those w/conditions that impact on their physical appearance, are unlikely to be treated same way by their peers- means that it is difficult to separate contribution of nature and nurture on gender
L: therefore makes it difficult to generalise findings from case studies to all people who may have gender conditions
Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome: contribute towards our understanding of nature-nurture debate in gender development as whole (A03) 2
P: beneficial- contribute towards our understanding of nature-nurture debate in gender development as whole
E+E: comparing individuals w/these conditions w/ individuals who have typical chromosomal patterns it allows researchers to identify differences in gender behaviour eg. individuals w/Turner’s syndrome tend to talk more than ‘typical’ girls
L: therefore leads researchers to conclude that this is due to chromosomal differences providing evidence for role of nature in gender development
Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome: no such thing as typical and atypical gender behaviour (A03) 4
P: no such thing as typical and atypical gender behaviour
E+E: One of symptoms of Turner’s syndrome is that females are socially immature compared to vast majority of females- Research by Maccoby and Jacklin has actually found that there are significantly more gender differences w/in sexes than between them
L: therefore suggests that assumptions about typical gender behaviour are often based more around stereotypes than fact
Cognitive explanations of gender development: Kohlberg’s theory (A01)
Kohlberg believes that gender development including gender identity and gender roles is determined by child’s level of thinking and understanding-children have cognitive ability to understand that gender is fixed and constant at about 7 years they develop schemas of appropriate and inappropriate same sex behaviour and characteristics eg. clothing, hairstyles, occupations and personality
Gender schemas and gender roles develop through environmental interactions in which children actively seek out and imitate same sex models and focus on other gender information of how to behave like boy or girl Kohlberg called this self-socialisation
Kohlberg argues that children go through three distinct stages in development of full gender identity:
Stage 1 is gender identity and occurs between about 2–3 years- when child understands that they are boy or girl but believe that gender can change
Stage 2 is gender stability and occurs between 3-5 years- child understands that their gender is fixed over time and that boys become men and girls become women but they are unable to apply this to other people and other situations-also confused by changes in appearance so if man has long hair, they will think he is woman
Stage 3 is gender constancy and occurs between 6–7 years-child understands gender remains fixed over time and different situations- Children are cognitively ready to develop appropriate gender roles and behaviour
Cognitive explanations of gender development-Kohlberg’s theory: supporting evidence (A03) 1
P: supporting evidence
E: McConaghy found that when doll was dressed in transparent clothes there was discrepancy between its clothing and its genitals 3 to 4 year old children decided on dolls gender on basis of clothing- study therefore supports Kohlberg’s theory of gender development bc it suggests that gender constancy has not yet been achieved by this age in line w/what Kohlberg predicts
E: Furthermore Munroe et al found that Kohlberg’s three stages of gender identity development was similar and occurred in same order in six cultures-USA, Kenya, Nepal, Belize and Samoa
L: study provides evidence that three stages may be universal and based on biological maturation of cognitive structures as Kohlberg claims which strengthens explanation
Cognitive explanations of gender development-Kohlberg’s theory: contradictory evidence (A03) 2
P: contradictory evidence
E: Martin and Little found that children under age of four who showed no signs of gender stability or constancy still demonstrated strong sex typed behaviour and attitudes
E: Furthermore Bussey and Bandura found that children as young as 4 said they felt good about playing w/gender-appropriate toys and bad about playing w/gender-inappropriate toys
L: findings dispute Kohlberg’s claim that children only begin to demonstrate gender-appropriate behaviour once they reach gender constancy stage and is more in line w/gender-schema theory which suggests that children absorb gender-appropriate information as soon as they identify themselves as either male or female
Cognitive explanations of gender development-Kohlberg’s theory: methodological problems (A03) 3
P: methodological problems
E: Kohlberg’s theory was developed using interviews w/children who were as young as 2 years-Despite questions being tailored towards that particular age group children may have lacked vocabulary needed to express their understanding of gender
E: may have lowered validity of interviews as children may not have not been able to express what they truly felt
L: therefore findings are not representative of children’s understanding of gender and could lower validity of Kohlberg’s stages
Cognitive explanations of gender development-Kohlberg’s theory: taking in account nurture and nature (A03) 4
P: taking account nurture and nature
E+E: three stages of gender development are universal and not limited by cultural relativism so are based on nature and self-socialisation focuses on experiences so is based on nurture
L: by considering both nature and nurture it could be argued that this makes Kohlberg’s explanation of gender development more reasonable and therefore acceptable
Cognitive explanations of gender development: gender schema (A01)
organised set of attitudes, beliefs and values stored in memory about gender behaviour-child’s thinking and understanding about experiences determine development of gender schemas and therefore gender development
Cognitive explanations of gender development: gender schema theory (A01)
proposes that we learn gender schemas about what is appropriate and inappropriate gender behaviour through our observations and interactions w/others-These gender schemas develop from about 2 years of age after basic gender identity is established and children are most interested in and therefore focus on schemas which match their own in-group gender identity and avoid out-group gender schemas
In group schemas develop concerning expectations and attitudes about one’s own gender and out-group schemas about other gender-Gender schemas provide the basis for what is perceived to be appropriate and inappropriate gender role behaviour-Gender schemas determine: what information children pay attention to how children interpret behaviour and social situations and what children remember from their experiences
Gender schemas change and become more complex as child’s cognitive abilities develop-By adolescence gender schemas become more flexible as children understand that gender roles are socially constructed and many teenagers become less sex-typed and more androgynous
Cognitive explanations of gender development-gender schema theory: supporting evidence (A03) 1
P: supporting evidence
E: Martin and Halverson found that children under age of six were more likely to remember photographs of gender consistent behaviours than gender inconsistent behaviours when tested week later-Children tended to change sex of person carrying out gender – inconsistent activities in photographs when asked to recall them which supports that memory is distorted to fit in w/existing gender schemas
E: Further research to support comes from Martin and Little-found that children under the age of four who showed no signs of gender stability or constancy still demonstrated strong sex typed behaviour and attitudes
L: therefore supports gender schema theory whilst contradicting Kohlberg’s theory
Cognitive explanations of gender development-gender schema theory: key assumptions are unsupported (A03) 2
P: key assumptions are unsupported
E+E: theory suggests that it should be possible to change child’s schemas and that by adolescence gender schemas become more flexible however this has shown to be very difficult eg. many people have strong views regarding sex equality and division of labour in home but this often fails to show in their day to day behaviour
L: this demonstrates that attitudes do not necessarily lead to behaviour yet gender schema theory assumes that child’s attitudes do affect their behaviour
Cognitive explanations of gender development-gender schema theory: exaggerating importance of schemas (A03) 3
P: exaggerating importance of schemas
E+E: theory does not pay sufficient attention to social factors such as roles of parental influence and role of reward and punishment eg. girl may be punished for being assertive and dominant whereas boy may be praised for showing these qualities
L: it would be inappropriate to conclude that schemas alone are responsible for gender role development and that other factors should be taken into consideration when trying to explain such complex behaviour
Cognitive explanations of gender development-gender schema theory: gender schema theory and Kohlberg’s theory can actually be seen to complement one another as oppose to being in direct conflict (A03) 4
P: gender schema theory and Kohlberg’s theory can actually be seen to complement one another as oppose to being in direct conflict
E+E: Researchers have argued that gender schemas and gender constancy may be two different processes- Gender schemas explain how information is organised and stored in memory whereas gender constancy related to motivation-Once child has established their concept of what it means to be boy or girl they are then motivated to find out more
L: therefore perhaps be more appropriate to look to combining these gender theories to provide wider understanding of gender development
Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: Pre-phallic Children (A01)
According to Freud children have no concept of gender identity prior to phallic stage- Freud described these pre-phallic children as bisexual in sense that they are neither masculine nor feminine-Gender identity begins to form in phallic stage when focus of pleasure switches to genitals and child experiences Oedipus complex or Electra complex- Resolving these conflicts effectively is vital for healthy gender development
Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: Oedipus Complex (A01)
Freud proposed that boys experience Oedipus complex whereby they desire their mother-They then see their father as rival and as result develop murderous hatred for their father who stands in way of boy possessing his mother- However boy recognises that father is more powerful than he is and fears he may be castrated by father for his feelings towards mother-castration anxiety
To resolve conflict boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father- through this identification w/that boy internalises his father’s gender identity
Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: Electra Complex (A01)
Girls experience electra complex upon discovering she doesn’t have penis girl develops penis envy blaming mother for lack of penis believing that she was castrated by her- girl also sees mother as a love rival standing in way of father
Over time girls comes to accept that she will never have penis and substitutes penis envy for desire to have children- reduces anger towards her mother causing her to identify w/ her mother and internalise her feminine gender behaviours
Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: Identification + internalisation (A01)
For both sexes identification w/same-sex parent is means of resolving their respective complexes-boy will give up his desire for his mother and identify instead w/his father likewise girl passively identifies w/her mother
Identification lead to internalisation- processing of adopting attitudes, values and gender identity of same-sex parent-boy will internalise views and behaviour of his father and likewise girl does same w/her mother assuming their values as child’s own
Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: supporting evidence (A03) 1
P: supporting evidence
E+E: study of 49 women by Wiszewska et al precise dimensions of their fathers’ faces were mapped out women were then shown pictures of 15 men’s faces and Wiszewska found that if women had good relationship w/their father they were significantly more likely to pick out picture which resembled his dimensions
L: supports Freudian concept of Electra complex and view that women are attracted to opposite sex parent
Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: contradictory evidence (A03) 2
P: contradictory evidence
E+E: Freud supported his theory w/use of case studies- This research lacks validity-Based on one case we cannot be certain that all young boys suffer from castration anxiety-Additionally, Freud’s theory implies that sons of very strict and harsh fathers should go on to develop stronger gender identity than other boys- is bc high levels of castration anxiety experienced by these boys should produce stronger identification w/aggressor
L: However this is not supported by evidence and in fact reverse would seem to be true – boys w/more liberal easy-going fathers, tend to be more secure in their masculine identity
Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: female gender development is poorly explained (A03) 3
P: female gender development is poorly explained
E+E: Freud wrote extensively about Oedipus complex and focussed much more on male gender identity admitting that that women were mystery to him- Freud’s theory of female gender identity especially notion of penis envy has been heavily criticised for reflecting patriarchal Victorian era in which Freud lived-Indeed feminist psychoanalyst Karen Horney argues that more powerful emotion than penis envy is male experience of ‘womb envy’ – reaction to women’s ability to give life
L: Furthermore Horney argues that Freud’s theory of female gender development is flawed as it is founded on idea that women desire to be like men illustrating Alpha Bias
Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: disagreement over gender identity (A03) 4
P: disagreement over gender identity
E+E: Freud argued that gender identity is formed at end of phallic stage -age 6 when child identifies w/same sex parent- Prior to this child is described as bisexual, neither male nor female This is in contrast to other explanations of gender development such as Kohlberg’s theory which suggests that child’s concept of gender develops gradually across number of stages which coincide w/increased cognitive abilities
L: Freud failed to take into account growing cognitive abilities of child therefore his theory lacks validity
SLT explanations of gender development: direct reinforcement (A01)
Children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is gender appropriate- way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show gender-appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement- through this differential reinforcement that child learns their gender identity
Behaviours that are reinforced are then imitated- child is more likely to imitate behaviour that has been reinforced This reinforcement may be direct or indirect
SLT explanations of gender development: indirect (vicarious) reinforcement (A01)
consequences of another person’s behaviour are pleasant that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by child- consequence of behaviour leads to punishment behaviour is less likely to be imitated
SLT explanations of gender development: identification and modelling (A01)
process whereby child attaches themselves to role model-Role models tend to be attractive, high status and usually same sex as child- some examples of same sexed role model you had whilst growing up-Include people that were within your immediate environment as well as those from media:
When child imitates behaviour of role model this is called modelling eg. when little girl copies her mother setting table or feeds her doll using toy bottle she is modelling behaviour she has witnessed
SLT explanations of gender development: meditational process (A01)
attention-noticing + observing behaviour
retention-remember behaviour performed
reproduction-having ability to copy same behaviour
motivation-having desire to want to copy same behaviour
SLT explanations of gender development: supporting evidence (A03) 1
P: supporting evidence
E+E: Smith and Lloyd dressed 4-6 month old babies in either girl’s clothes or boy’s clothes- found that adults interacted w/babies differently eg. when it was assumed baby was boy adults selected hammer shaped rattle and were more adventurous and active w/baby-When adults believed baby was girl they reinforced passive behaviour and selected cuddly doll to play w/child
L: study suggests that gender behaviour is reinforced at an early age supporting SLT
SLT explanations of gender development: explains change in gender roles (A03) 2
P: explains change in gender roles
E+E: Changing views regarding stereotypically masculine and feminine behaviours in our society can be explain by shift in cultural norms and way that these new forms of acceptable gender behaviour have been reinforced
L: there has been no corresponding change in people’s basis biology within same period- e.g. males still have XY chromosomes such shift is much better explained by SLT than biological approach
SLT explanations of gender development: not developed theory (A03) 3
P: not developed theory
E+E: Critics have argued that SLT does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change w/age eg. toddler is incapable of imitating parent vacuuming living room bc they are not strong enough to push vacuum cleaner-However general implication is that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age
L: influence of age and development on learning behaviour is not factor considered by SLT and this may be limitation of explanation
SLT explanations of gender development: contradictory evidence (A03) 4
P: contradictory evidence
E+E: According to SLT gender roles and behaviors are learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement from parents and society- David Reimer who was born male but underwent sex reassignment surgery after botched circumcision was raised as girl named Brenda- Despite being socialised as female- David struggled w/his gender identity throughout his childhood and eventually transitioned back to living as male
L: case contradicts SLT bc it illustrates that gender identity may not be solely shaped by socialisation and environmental factors
SOCIAL factors affecting gender roles (SLT, media, culture): SLT theory (A01)
explains influence of environment-nurture in shaping our gender identity this also includes media and culture
SOCIAL factors affecting gender roles (SLT, media, culture): indirect reinforcement (A01)
when child observers media that consequences of another persons gender behaviour are pleasant-that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by child-if consequence of behaviour seen in media leads to punishment-gender specific behaviour is less likely influenced by their gender behaviour
SOCIAL factors affecting gender roles (SLT, media, culture): identification in SLT and media (A01)
process whereby child attaches themselves to role model-Role models tend to be attractive, high status and usually same sex as child- some examples of same sexed role model you had whilst growing up-Include people that were within your immediate environment as well as those from media:
When child imitates behaviour of role model this is called modelling eg. when little girl copies her mother setting table or feeds her doll using toy bottle she is modelling behaviour she has witnessed
SOCIAL factors affecting gender roles (SLT, media, culture): identification in culture (A01)
influences gender roles through shared beliefs, values, and practices that dictate what is considered appropriate behaviour for men and women-Different cultures have distinct norms regarding masculinity and femininity, which can shape expectations around responsibilities, occupations, and social interactions
eg. in some cultures, traditional gender roles may emphasise male authority and female submissiveness, while others may promote more egalitarian views-Cultural narratives, rituals, and even language contribute to reinforcement of these roles, impacting how individuals perceive themselves and others in relation to gender-Understanding cultural context is essential for recognising diversity of gender roles and ways they can evolve over time
influence of media on gender roles: research support for SLT (A03) 1
P: research support for SLT
E: Research into effects of media on gender roles provides support for SLT explanation of gender- bc it clearly illustrates effects of learning through imitation and observation on gender role behaviour
E: media provide role models w/whom children may identify and want to imitate-study of TV adverts by Furnham and Farragher found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional context e.g. company boss whereas women were often seen in domestic setting e.g child rearing
L: suggests that media may play role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour
influence of culture on gender roles: cultural differences (A03) 1
P: cultural differences
E+E: One of earliest cross-cultural studies of gender roles was carried out by Margaret Mead of tribal groups on island of New Guinea:
.Arapesh were gentle and cooperative
.Mundugumor were aggressive / hostile
.Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life- men were passive and considered to be ‘decorative’
Mead concluded that gender is culturally determined and that gender roles are acquired through socialisation and adherence to cultural norms
L: However Mead’s research has been criticised for not separating her own opinions from her description of Samoan life and making sweeping generalisations based on relatively short period of study
influence of media on gender roles: correlational research (A03) 2
P: correlational research
E+E: McGhee and Frueh conducted research on amount of TV children watch and their knowledge of sex-role stereotypes- found that children aged 6-12 who watched more than 25 hours of TV week held more sex-stereotyped perceptions than those who watched 10 hours or less- study suggests that media is source of information for sex-role stereotypes and was especially seen for male teenagers
L: however correlational research cannot establish whether TV viewing causes sex-role stereotypes-Additionally is cannot be ascertained how this increase in knowledge affects behaviour of children
influence of media on gender roles: counter stereotypes (A03) 3
P: counter stereotypes
E: In recent years there have been many examples of counter-stereotypes in media, such as Disney movie Brave, which challenges traditional gender roles and Marvel’s top selling movie, Captain Marvel using strong female role models in media- It is hoped that these counter-stereotypes may help in reducing gender stereotyping and gender discrimination in society
E: Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) has toughened rules on ads that are deemed to present activities as only appropriate for one gender or another or that mock those who do not conform to stereotypical gender roles
L: Ads that perpetuate sexist stereotypes from men bungling housework to girls being less academic than boys will be banned under rules being proposed by industry watchdog
influence of culture on gender roles: cultural similarities (A03) 2
P: many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles
E+E: eg. Buss found similar patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents
L: In all cultures women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in potential partner
influence of culture on gender roles: imposed ethics (A03) 3
P: imposed ethic
E+E: There is danger that researchers, armed w/theories and methods that have been developed in West, impose their own cultural interests and understandings upon people they are studying-Berry refers to this as an imposed ethic- To counteract this, Berry suggested that at least one member of local population should be included within research team
L: what Buss did in this research increasing its cultural validity.
influence of culture on gender roles: nature or nurture (A03) 4
P: issue w/nature and nurture debate
E+E: Although cross-cultural research can provide an insight into effect of different cultural practices on gender-role behaviour such research does not solve nature-nurture debate- reality it is impossible to separate two influences on development of gender roles- As soon as children are born their socialisation into society begins
L: Therefore, it becomes very difficult to determine where nature biology stops and nurture social influence begins
Atypical gender development-biological explanation: brain sex theory (A01)
suggests that GID is caused by specific brain structures that are different in males and females- Zhou found that particular area within thalamus is around 40% larger in males than females
In post-mortem study of six male-to-female transgender individuals, the BSTc was found to be similar size to that of typical female brain- was confirmed by Kruijver who studied same brain tissue and found that number of neurones in BSTc of these transgender individuals was similar to that of typical female brain
Atypical gender development-biological explanation: genetic factors (A01)
Evidence suggests that GID may have genetic basis-Coolidge assessed 157 twin pairs for evidence of GID and found that 62% of GID cases were accounted for by genetic variance
Similarly, Heylens compared 23 MZ and 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed w/GID- found that 39% of MZ twins were concordant for GID compared to none of DZ’s-Both of these studies suggests that there is strong heritable component to GID
Atypical gender development-social psychological explanation: psychoanalytic theory (A01)
been argued that GID in males is caused by child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established child fantasises of symbolic fusion w/ his mother to relieve anxiety, and danger of separation is removed- consequence is that child becomes overly close to mother and adopts female gender identity
Stoller interviewed GID males and found that they had overly close mother-son relationships, which could lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity in long term- It is suggested that severe paternal rejection is cause of GID in females- Unconsciously child identifies as male to gain acceptance from father
Atypical gender development-biological explanation: contradictory evidence for BSTc (A03) 1
P: Contradictory evidence for BSTc
E+E: Contradictory evidence for BSTc: Although most transsexuals report gender confusion in early childhood Chung et al found that hormonal influences that affect size of BSTc volume are not triggered until adulthood
L: evidence casts doubt on idea that brain differences are present in early childhood and therefore that GID is directly caused by BSTc volume
Atypical gender development-biological explanation: twin studies are inconclusive (A03) 2
P: twin studies are inconclusive
E+E: concordance rates for GID are not very high- makes it very difficult to separate influence of nature and nurture within these investigations Twins especially MZ twins, may influence each other and environmental conditions they are exposed to are likely to be very similar eg. one twin may simply be imitating behaviour of other by dressing and acting as opposite sex
L: Also due to the fact that GID occurs so rarely small sample sizes in twin studies tend to be extremely small limiting extent to which effective generalisations can be made
Atypical gender development-social psychological explanation: supporting evidence (A03) 1
P: supporting evidence
E+E: Zucker et al studied 115 boys w/ concerns about their gender identity Of boys who were diagnosed w/GID 64% were diagnosed w/separation anxiety disorder-Zucker also found high levels of emotional involvement in mothers of boys w/GID
L: suggests that GID in males is linked to their relationship w/their mothers, supporting psychoanalytical explanation-However, it should be noted that separation anxiety is very difficult to test as it relies on retrospective data
Atypical gender development-social constructism: supporting evidence (A03) 1
P: supporting evidence
E+E: in some cultures eg. Fa’afarfine in Samoa they recognise that more than 2 genders and fact that more people are identifying as non-binary in modern society
L: suggest that gender identity and therefore gender dysphoria is more social construction rather than biologic fact
Atypical gender development: social constructism (A01)
theory that emphasises role of social processes and interactions in formation of knowledge and understanding- context of gender, social constructivism posits that gender roles are not biologically predetermined but are instead constructed through cultural and societal influences- perspective suggests that individuals learn and internalise gender norms through socialisation, including family, education, media, and peer interactions
gender is seen as a fluid and dynamic concept, shaped by historical and cultural contexts rather than fixed traits
Atypical gender development-social constructism: issues w/social/ psychological explanations (A03) 2
P: issues w/social/psychological explanations
E+E: Drummond filled sample of 25 biological females who had been diagnosed with gender dysphoria in childhood-only 3 out of 25 were still classified as having gender dysphoria when rolled up at age of 24
L: findings suggests that gender dysphoria is more of social/ psychological issue rather than gender issue bc if it was biological they should still have gender dysphoria as an adult
