gender

Question 1

sex + gender (A01)

Answer 1

difference between sex and gender is that sex is innate in nature whereas gender is at least partly environmental- would suggest that person’s sex cannot be changed- person’s gender however is seen to be more open concept- assumed that person may be more ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ depending on social context they are in

Imperato-McGinley et al conducted study on unique family known as Batista family who lived in Dominican Republic- Four of children were identified as being female at birth and were raised as such however they were actually genetically male- very rare genetic condition meant that when hormonal changes occurred in puberty their vaginas closed over and they developed penises- All of boys abandoned their female gender and identified as male from that point forward- would suggest that gender is flexible

Question 2

sex role stereotypes (A01)

Answer 2

Societies expectations of what roles are seen to be appropriate for males or females are often communicated and reinforced by parents, teachers and media eg. Furnham and Farrager analysed TV adverts and found that men are more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in professional contexts whereas women were depicted in familial roles within domestic settings

Although some sex role stereotypes have an element of truth behind them many do not which leads to sexist views being formed eg. recent research has found that women do seem to cope better with multi-tasking than males but there is no strong evidence to suggest that women struggle to control their emotions in work place

Question 3

Androgyny (A01)

Answer 3

show an even balance of qualities or characteristics that are typically associated w/genders-term comes from combined ‘Andro’ meaning ‘male’ and ‘gyny’ meaning ‘female’

Both males and females can be described as being androgynous eg. individual who is aggressive and competitive at work but kind and sensitive parent is displaying typically male and female characteristics

Androgynous individuals tend to have more positive psychological health outcomes than typically masculine or typically feminine individuals

Question 4

measuring androgyny: Bem sex role inventory (BSRI)

Answer 4

Bem – designed Bem Sex Role Inventory to measure androgyny- self-report w/60 items all rated on seven point likert scale- 20 items are related to stereotypically masculine characteristics

20 items are related to stereotypically female characteristics and 20 items are gender-neutral filler items scores are calculated to identify individuals overall type- BSRI is an indicator or psychological well-being and mental health rather than just having masculine or feminine qualities

Scoring of BSRI - Scores are then classified on two dimensions – masculinity – feminity and androgynous – undifferentiated

Question 5

Androgyny and measuring androgyny-Bem sex role inventory: supporting research for positive correlation between androgyny and good mental health (A03) 1

Answer 5

P: supporting research for a positive correlation between androgyny and good mental health

E: particularly in relation to lower levels of depression in androgynous females- Androgynous college males also scored lower on social introversion than feminine females- findings therefore support importance of androgyny as an indicator of positive mental health

E: furthermore Peters and Cantrell used BSRI to provide supporting evidence that androgynous females had best quality of relationship supporting idea of positive condition and it being associated w/higher interpersonal functioning than individuals who are predominantly masculine or feminine

L: Therefore this increases validity of BSRI as measure of psychological well being

Question 6

Androgyny and measuring androgyny-Bem sex role inventory: supporting research evidence for correlation between positive mental health and androgyny criticised (A03) 2

Answer 6

P: supporting research evidence for correlation between positive mental health and androgyny critics argue that androgyny is not always associated w/positive mental health

E+E: eg. androgynous individuals may demonstrate negative masculine characteristics eg. aggressiveness and negative feminine characteristics such as being too timid in certain situations- therefore criticises Bem’s idea of positive psychological wellbeing

L: strength of BSRI is that it has good test-retest reliability. Research has demonstrated high correlation co-efficient of .76 to .94 over a 4-week period and shorter version of test which has 30 items has improved test-retest reliability w/correlation of .90- therefore suggests that inventory is reliable way to measure androgyny

Question 7

Androgyny and measuring androgyny-Bem sex role inventory: temporal validity have been questioned (A03) 3

Answer 7

P: temporal validity have been questioned

E+E: bc it was created by data generated from American students in 1970s and typical gender behaviour may have changed since then eg. more contemporary research was conducted on group of 400 undergraduates who were asked to rate items on BSRI as masculine or feminine only two of items were still considered to be masculine or feminine

L: therefore suggests that BSRI is outdated as measure of androgyny

Question 8

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: role of hormones (A01)

Answer 8

Chromosomes initially determine person’s sex but most gender development occurs through influence of hormones-Prenatally in womb, hormones act upon brain development and cause development of reproductive organs-At puberty burst of hormonal activity triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic hair-Males and females produce many of same hormones but in different concentrations

Question 9

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender (A01)

Answer 9

biological perspective, sex and gender are same Behavioural, psychological and social differences between sexes are seen to be result of anatomical, chromosomal and hormonal differences in body-From this perspective our biological sex determines our gender development

Question 10

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: role of chromosomes (A01)

Answer 10

46 chromosomes in human body which are arranged into pairs-Each person has 23 pairs of chromosomes Each of these chromosomes carries hundreds of genes containing instructions about physical and behavioural characteristics such as eye colour and predisposition to certain mental illnesses

One pair of chromosomes are called sex chromosomes because they determine an individual’s biological sex A female’s chromosomal structure is XX and male is XY

A mother’s egg always contains an X chromosome sperm fertilising egg will carry either an X or Y chromosome- If carries an X baby will then have XX chromosomes and be female if it carries a Y then baby will have XY chromosomes and be male

Question 11

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: testosterone (A01)

Answer 11

male hormone which is produced prenatally and controls development of male sex organs- Testosterone also affects brain development both prenatally and later in childhood

Much research has focussed on behavioural effects of testosterone and its link to aggression- Human and animal studies have demonstrated influence of increased testosterone on aggressive behaviour

Question 12

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: oestrogen (A01)

Answer 12

Oestrogen is female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation- default gender is female and so females do not need hormones to direct prenatal gender development

plays major role from puberty onwards promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and directing menstrual cycle also causes some women to experience heightened emotions and irritability during their menstrual cycle

Question 13

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: oxytocin (A01)

Answer 13

Women typically produce oxytocin in much larger amounts than men and is sometimes referred to as love hormone- released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth and makes new mother feel ‘in love’ w/baby

hormone stimulates lactation making it possible for women to breast feed and reduces stress hormone cortisol facilitating bonding fact that men produce less Oxytocin has fuelled stereotype that men are less interested in intimacy and closeness in relationship

Question 14

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: supporting evidence (A03) 1

Answer 14

P: supporting evidence in prisons and transgender

E+E: Dabbs et al found in prison population that offenders w/highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. Van Goozen et al studied transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment and being injected w/hormones of the opposite sex Transgender women showed decrease in aggression and visuo-spatial skills whilst transgender men showed opposite

L: support role of sex hormones in gender-related behaviour such as aggression

Question 15

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: contradictory evidence (A03) 2

Answer 15

P: contradictory evidence

E+E: Research by Tricker et al gave males either 10 weekly injections of testosterone or placebo and found no significant differences in aggression- consistent w/ further research which has found that sex hormones had no consistent effect on gender development

L: questions view that sex hormones determine behaviour

Question 16

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: research to cross cultural gender differences has been used to criticise role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender (A03) 3

Answer 16

P: research to cross cultural gender differences has been used to criticise role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender

E+E: Mead conducted research to three tribes in Papua New Guinea- In Arapesh both males and females displayed non-aggressive gentle typically feminine behaviour-In Mundugumor tribe both males and females behaved in an masculine way- aggressive and assertive and in Tchambuli tribe sex role behaviour was completely reversed

L: therefore suggests that environment has larger influence on gender development as if main cause was biological then same differences would be seen across all tribes

Question 17

role of chromosomes + hormones in sex + gender: supporting evidence in case studies (A03) 4

Answer 17

P: supporting evidence in David Reimers case

E+E: findings highlight significance role biology plays in gender identity and development David was raised as girl after botched circumcision but despite social and environmental influences he struggled w/his assigned gender identity-case emphasizes that biological factors such as genetics and hormonal influences can have profound impact on an individual’s sense of self often overriding social conditioning

L: strength bc it shows eventual decision by David to identify as male later in life supports argument that biological predispositions are crucial in understanding gender identity-Overall this case serves as critical example of complex interplay between biology and environment in shaping person’s identity

Question 18

Atypical sex chromosome patterns: Klinefelter’s syndrome (A01)

Answer 18

Individuals who have this condition are biologically male w/anatomical appearance of males and have an additional X chromosome-sex chromosome structure is XXY-Approximately 1 in 1000 males have this condition-Diagnosis often occurs accidently via medical examination for some unrelated condition

Question 19

Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s syndrome: physical characteristics (A01)

Answer 19

.Reduced body hair
.Underdeveloped genitals
.Some breast development at puberty and ‘softening’ or ‘rounding’ of body contours
.More susceptible to health problems found in females such as breast cancer

Question 20

Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s syndrome: psychological characteristics (A01)

Answer 20

.Poorly developed language skills and reading ability
· Passive and shy
· Lack of interest in sexual activity
· Tend not to respond well in stressful situations

Question 21

Atypical sex chromosome patterns: Turners syndrome (A01)

Answer 21

caused by an absence of one of two allocated X chromosomes and is referred to as XO- means individual has 45 chromosomes rather than usual 46 occurs in about 1 in 2000 females at birth

Question 22

Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Turners syndrome: physical characteristics (A01)

Answer 22

.Underdeveloped ovaries leading to lack of monthly periods
· Do not develop breasts at puberty and instead have broad chest
· Low set ears and webbed neck
· Physically immature and retain appearance of pre-pubescent girls

Question 22

Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Turners syndrome: psychological characteristics (A01)

Answer 22

.Higher than average reading ability
· Lower performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical skills

Question 23

Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome: practical application (A03) 1

Answer 23

P: research has practical applications

E+E: Herlihy showed that individuals identified and treated from very young age has significant benefits compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood-Further research is likely to lead to earlier diagnosis and an increased understanding of those issues faced by those syndromes

L: Such research will therefore have direct benefit to people who have these atypical chromosomal patterns as well as increasing our understanding of atypical development

Question 24

Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome: Ps used in studies into atypical sex chromosomes are unique (A03) 3

Answer 24

P: Ps used in studies into atypical sex chromosomes are unique

E+E: Individuals w/unusual conditions particularly those w/conditions that impact on their physical appearance, are unlikely to be treated same way by their peers- means that it is difficult to separate contribution of nature and nurture on gender

L: therefore makes it difficult to generalise findings from case studies to all people who may have the gender conditions

Question 24

Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome: contribute towards our understanding of nature-nurture debate in gender development as whole (A03) 2

Answer 24

P: beneficial- contribute towards our understanding of nature-nurture debate in gender development as whole

E+E: comparing individuals w/these conditions w/ individuals who have typical chromosomal patterns it allows researchers to identify differences in gender behaviour eg. individuals w/Turner’s syndrome tend to talk more than ‘typical’ girls

L: therefore leads researchers to conclude that this is due to chromosomal differences providing evidence for role of nature in gender development

Question 25

Atypical sex chromosome patterns-Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome: no such thing as typical and atypical gender behaviour (A03) 4

Answer 25

P: no such thing as typical and atypical gender behaviour

E+E: One of symptoms of Turner’s syndrome is that females are socially immature compared to vast majority of females- Research by Maccoby and Jacklin has actually found that there are significantly more gender differences w/in sexes than between them

L: therefore suggests that assumptions about typical gender behaviour are often based more around stereotypes than fact

Question 26

Cognitive explanations of gender development: Kohlberg’s theory (A01)

Answer 26

Kohlberg believes that gender development including gender identity and gender roles is determined by child’s level of thinking and understanding-children have cognitive ability to understand that gender is fixed and constant at about 7 years they develop schemas of appropriate and inappropriate same sex behaviour and characteristics eg. clothing, hairstyles, occupations and personality
Gender schemas and gender roles develop through environmental interactions in which children actively seek out and imitate same sex models and focus on other gender information of how to behave like boy or girl Kohlberg called this self-socialisation

Kohlberg argues that children go through three distinct stages in development of full gender identity:

Stage 1 is gender identity and occurs between about 2–3 years- when child understands that they are boy or girl but believe that gender can change
Stage 2 is gender stability and occurs between 3-5 years- child understands that their gender is fixed over time and that boys become men and girls become women but they are unable to apply this to other people and other situations-also confused by changes in appearance so if man has long hair, they will think he is woman
Stage 3 is gender constancy and occurs between 6–7 years-child understands gender remains fixed over time and different situations- Children are cognitively ready to develop appropriate gender roles and behaviour