aggression

Question 1

neural mechanisms in aggression: limbic system (A01)

Answer 1

limbic system is a set of structures deep w/brain including cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus + amygdala amygdala has been linked to how humans + animals assess threats in environment and how they respond emotionally to these threats

Evidence from fMRI scans have shown that damage or underactivity in the pre-frontal cortex leads to a lack of ‘control’ over the limbic system, meaning people + animals may show sudden + unexpected aggressive responses to perceived threats in environment- Over-reactivity in amygdala has same effect; if this part of limbic system is activated, both humans + animals show high levels of aggression

Question 2

neural mechanisms in aggression: serotonin (A01)

Answer 2

neurotransmitter which is associated w/ communication of impulses between neurons; it has an inhibitory or calming effect on brain
Low levels of serotonin in orbito-frontal cortex have been linked to poor self-control + impulsive behaviours including aggression

Aggressive behaviours may be split into impulsive or non-impulsive- Low serotonin levels seem to explain why some people may ‘flip’ + lose control over their aggression eg. evidence comparing cerebrospinal fluid of violent-impulsive + violent non-impulsive offenders
show significantly lower levels of serotonin metabolite in violent-impulsive offenders
violent-impulsive offenders also reported more difficulties sleeping compared to non-impulsive group, suggesting that their nervous system was in an excited state

Question 3

hormonal mechanisms in aggression (A01)

Answer 3

reliable observation that males are more aggressive than females, which has led psychologists to look into the role of male sex hormone, testosterone- responsible for development of masculine features during puberty such as height, build, deep voice, and body hair + thought to be linked to displays of aggression

Evidence suggests that the prevalence of aggressive behaviours tend to correlate with fluctuating testosterone levels + males show more aggressive behaviours than females in majority of animal species as well as in humans. Experiments on animals have shown that when testosterone levels are reduced then the number of aggressive behaviours also lower

Question 4

neural mechanisms in aggression: supporting evidence in the role of the amygdala (A03) 1

Answer 4

P: supporting evidence showing role of amygdala in playing key role in how we assess and respond to environmental threats

E: Gospic et al (2011) carried out brain scans (fMRI) on Ps in lab-based game that provoked aggression

E: Scans showed aggressive reactions were associated w/fast + heightened response by amygdala Benzodiazepine-reduces arousal of autonomic NS taken before game halved number of aggressive reactions + also decreased amygdala activity

L: strength bc it demonstrates influence of higher activity in Amygdala on impulsive behaviour + therefore could explain impulsive aggressive behaviour

Question 5

neural mechanisms in aggression: supporting evidence in serotonin activity reduce aggression behaviour (A03) 2

Answer 5

P: supporting evidence showing that drugs that increase serotonin activity also reduce levels of aggressive behaviour

E: Berman et al (2009) split Ps into 2 conditions where Ps were given either placebo or dose of paroxetine- Ps then took part in lab-based game where they gave + received electric shocks in response to provocation

E: placebo group gave more intense shocks than group given paroxetine because paroxetine group had experienced an increase in their serotonin levels-was only true of Ps who had prior history of aggressive behaviour

L: study therefore demonstrates link between serotonin levels + aggression

Question 6

neural mechanisms in aggression: supporting evidence from case studies (A03) 3

Answer 6

P: supporting evidence from case studies for the neural explanation for aggression from case studies such as Phineas Gage + Charles Whiteman

E+ E: Phineas gage had suffered damage to his left frontal lobe-this changed his personality dramatically making him more impulsive, irritable and less able to plan or organise
Charles Whiteman had a brain tumour on his amygdala which is a crucial for emotion and behaviour control-tumour could have led his inability to control his emotions + actions as Whiteman killed 16 people and injured 32 in a shooting

L: strength bc it shows the investigation in the biological and hormonal mechanisms associated w/it along the neural explanation

Question 7

hormonal mechanisms in aggression: supporting evidence in role of testosterone from animal studies (A03) 1

Answer 7

P: supporting evidence in role of testosterone from animal studies

E+ E : Giammanco et al showed experimental increases in testosterone are related to aggression-Conversely, castration studies leading to decrease in testosterone + therefore reduction in aggressive behaviour

L: strength bc it shows direct link between hormone testosterone + aggression in animals

Question 8

hormonal mechanisms in aggression: supporting evidence in role of testosterone from humans (A03) 2

Answer 8

P: Evidence to support role of testosterone in human aggression comes from Dabbs et al

E+E: measured testosterone in the saliva of criminals + found those w/highest levels had history of primarily violent crimes, whereas those w/ lowest levels had committed only non-violent crimes

L: suggests that testosterone levels may have caused this difference in aggression

Question 9

Genetic Factors in aggression: twin studies (A01)

Answer 9

Twin studies have compared aggression levels of MZ + DZ twins eg. by looking at people w/ history of violent + criminal behaviour + comparing them w/ their twin- higher concordance rate for aggressive behaviour between twins higher likelihood that their behaviour was biologically determined eg. through genes
Because MZ twins share 100% of same genes + DZ twins share 50% of same genes we would expect that if aggression is genetic, then there would be higher concordance rate for aggression between MZ twins Coccaro et al found in male Ps w/ history of physical assault, there was 50% concordance for MZ twins + 19% for DZ, corresponding w/ their shared genetic profile

Question 10

Genetic Factors in aggression: adoption studies (A01)

Answer 10

Adoption studies such as Rutter et al compare aggressive behaviour of adoptees to that of their biological parents + their adoptive parents
Research has suggested that criminality and aggression does have some inherited factors, as Ps aggressive history was more similar to their estranged biological parents compared to adoptive parents who brought them up

Question 11

Genetic Factors in aggression: MAOA gene (A01)

Answer 11

MAOA is enzyme which breaks down neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine + noradrenaline. Some people develop an underactive MAOA gene which only produce low levels of the MAOA enzyme which in turn means there are higher levels of neurotransmitters in these people’s brains. MAOA-L has been associated w/ high levels of aggressive behaviour, hence showing inherited behaviour of ‘warrior’

Question 12

Genetic Factors in aggression: supporting evidence in non-human aggression (A03) 1

Answer 12

P: supporting evidence showing genetic factors in non-human aggression

E: Godar et al used genetic depletion techniques to ‘knockout’ MAOA activity in mice

E: mice had MAOA gene ‘knockout’ they showed increased serotonin levels in brain + hyper aggression- When mice were given an SSRI they reverted back to their non-aggressive behaviours again

L: positive because this scientific research highlights link between MAOA gene + serotonin activity however findings may only be applicable to explaining aggression in animals rather than humans

Question 13

Genetic Factors in aggression: supporting evidence in human aggression (A03) 2

Answer 13

P: supporting evidence showing genetic factors in human aggression

E+E: Brunner et al (1993) studied 28 members of Dutch family who all had history of impulsively violent + aggressive behaviour, including physical assaults, rape, + attempted murder-Findings showed that all these men had ‘warrior gene’ which had led to low levels of MAOA variant in their brains + high levels of serotonin + noradrenaline

L: strength bc this research could potentially help identify individuals at risk of becoming violent if it is possible to detect this genetic variation early on

Question 14

Genetic Factors in aggression: identified low MAOA is linked to aggression but only in individuals who have experienced early trauma (A03) 3

Answer 14

P: identified low MAOA is linked to aggression but only in individuals who have experienced early trauma

E: Frazzetto et al found an association between antisocial aggression + Low MAOA gene variant in adult males but only in those who experienced significant trauma during first 15 year of life

E: not experienced trauma were not especially aggressive as adults even if they possessed low-activity gene variant

L: findings suggest that genetic explanation alone cannot fully account for aggression and therefore diathesis stress explanation may be more appropriate
Furthermore, twin studies e.g. Coccaro et al found concordance rates for direct physical aggression in MZ twins is 50% + DZ twins is 19%- shows that genes alone cannot fully explain aggressive behaviour

Question 15

Genetic Factors in aggression: twin studies lack validity (A03) 4

Answer 15

P: genetic explanation is that twin studies may lack validity

E+E: Twins will share the same environment as each other however MZ twins tend to treated more similarly than DZ twins, especially by parents

L: concordance rates may be inflated + genetic influences on aggression may not be as high as twin studies suggest

Question 16

ethological explanation of aggression: adaptive functions of aggression (A01)

Answer 16

ethological explanation looks at aggression as an adaptive response which is beneficial for survival when 2 members of same species fight, they rarely kill their opponent but instead defeat them + victor gains territory, resources + mates.
Aggression also serves a purpose of establishing social hierarchies w/ in group of animals- most dominant male will exert power over others in the social group, gaining special status such as being given first opportunity to feed after hunt, or having mating rights over females
can be seen in many animal species, including chimpanzees + lions

Question 17

ethological explanation of aggression: ritualistic aggression (A01)

Answer 17

ritual involves carrying out certain behaviours in specific set order-can be seen in animal aggression eg. through certain ritualistic displays of aggression which occur before a physical fight- techniques are used to scare off opponent before it reaches point of physical aggression; e.g. bearing teeth or claws, growling, roaring + showing threatening body posture

Lorenz also identified ritualistic behaviours of defeated animal eg. cowering or whimpering. Chimps who lose fight offer subordinate hand display + lower their head to victor-Wolves who are defeated expose their neck to show that victor could rip out their throat w/ bite + kill them if they wished- very rare that victor would actually kill their opponent as this would affect their own genetic blood line, therefore these rituals work to clearly display winner of fight

Question 18

ethological explanation of aggression: innated releasing mechanisms + fixed action patterns (A01)

Answer 18

built-in physiological processes or structures eg. particular circuits in brain, which are triggered by environmental stimuli-Once triggered, IRMs activate certain sequence of behaviours which an animal is compelled to carry out; Fixed Action Patterns

main features of FAPs (fixed action patterns):
B-ballistic = an inevitable course which must be completed
R- response to specific stimulus that is viewed as physical threat
U-universal to the species
S-stereotypical, unchanging sequences of behaviour
H-hasn’t been learnt

Question 19

ethological explanation of aggression: supporting evidence in IRMs + FAPs in non-human aggression (A03) 1

Answer 19

P: supporting evidence in showing role IRMs + FAPs in non-human aggression

E+E: Tinbergen found when male sticklebacks were presented w/ series of models sticklebacks would attack it in same way regardless of shape of model if it had red spot but would not attack it if no red spot was present, even if model looked like realistic stickleback

L: supports idea that members of same species do have an IRM that is triggered by sign stimulus + It also supports Lea’s features of FAPs bc eg. FAPs were unchanging from 1 encounter to another + attack always ran its course to completion

Question 20

ethological explanation of aggression: behaviour patterns of species are ‘fixed’ has also been criticised (A03) 2

Answer 20

P: behaviour patterns of species are ‘fixed’ has also been criticised

E: Hunt argued that Lorenz underestimated role of environment in developing these behaviour patterns + that learning + experience interacts w/ innate factors to produce subtle variations in behaviour

E: 1 group of males systematically slaughtered other community in gang fashion- holding down individual chimps and carrying out prolonged attacks-ignored victim’s signals of defencelessness + defeat, hitting and biting them until they were dead

L: findings may not be able to explain the complex + less predictable ways humans show aggression

Question 21

ethological explanation of aggression: evidence against ideal of ritualistic aggression (A03) 3

Answer 21

P:evidence against ideal of ritualistic aggression

E: Goodall observed chimpanzees at national park in Tanzania-aggression of two rival communities of male chimps was not impulsive but coordinated and planned like military operation to point that she dubbed it ‘four-year war’

E: One group of males systematically slaughtered other community in gang fashion, holding down individual chimps and carrying out prolonged attacks- ignored victim’s signals of defencelessness and defeat, hitting and biting them until they were dead

L:weakness bc it questions idea that animal aggression is often ritualistic rather than real

Question 22

ethological explanation of aggression: can’t generalise findings to human aggression (A03) 4

Answer 22

P: Findings cannot be generalised to explain human aggression

E: Animals are qualitatively different to humans in their aggression; Tinbergen studied fish, Lorenz studied birds and mammals-However, both researchers extrapolated their findings to try to explain human aggression

E: Humans are more complex than animals and show range of different aggressive behaviours; active or passive, impulsive or calculated-would be invalid to compare human aggression directly to animal aggression

L: these findings may not be able to explain complex and less predictable ways humans show aggression

Question 23

evolutionary explanation of aggression (A01)

Answer 23

Evolutionary psychologists argue that aggression is adaptive as it would have been effective for solving number of survival and reproductive issues among early humans

eg. acquiring and defending resources, intimidating or eliminating male rivals for females, and deterring mates from sexual infidelity

Solving these problems enhance survival and reproductive success of individual and therefore these behaviours would have spread through gene pool, becoming common amongst all humans

Question 24

evolutionary explanation of aggression: sexual competition (A01)

Answer 24

Ancestral males seeking access to females would have had to compete w/other males- One way of eliminating this competition would have been through aggression successful individual would have increased their social status and been more successful in acquiring and protecting their mates from competing males and so would be more successful in passing on their genes to offspring have led to development of genetically transmitted tendency for males to be more aggressive to other males

Question 24

evolutionary explanation of aggression: sexual jealousy (A01)

Answer 24

Male aggression may also occur as result of sexual jealousy, which arises as a result of paternal uncertainty-Unlike women, men can never be entirely certain that they are the fathers of their children. Therefore men are always at risk of ‘cuckoldry’ Wilson and Daly identified several mate retention strategies used by males including:

.Direct Guarding – Vigilance over their partner, keeping tabs on them to ensure they are not seeing other men eg. controlling where their partner goes, who they are allowed to spend time w/checking their messages

.Negative Inducements – Threatening their partners if they act in way which he doesn’t want them to eg. saying they’ll hurt themselves if the partner tries to leave them

Question 24

evolutionary explanation of aggression: supporting evidence (A03) (1)

Answer 24

P: supporting evidence aggression may be motivated by response to threat of sexual jealousy and/or sexual competition

E + E: Shackelford et al aimed to investigate intimate partner violence in heterosexual couples- 107 married couples who had been married for less than one year completed questionnaires about their relationship-Men completed the ‘Mate Retention Inventory’ where they rated how likely they were to use different mate retention techniques Women completed ‘Spouse Influence Report’ where they rated extent of their partner’s violence in relationship-found strong positive correlation between men’s reports of their mate retention techniques and women’s reports of their partner’s aggressive behaviour

L: strength because it supports predictions from explanation about aggression being caused by threat of infidelity, cuckoldry and that aggression can have an adaptive value

Question 24

evolutionary explanation of aggression: further supporting evidence from crime data (A03) (2)

Answer 24

P: further support for evolutionary explanations of aggression comes from crime data

E+ E: eg. male sexual jealousy is claimed to be single most common motivation for killings in domestic disputes in US and sexual jealousy is reported to account for 17% of cases of murder in UK

L: show that there is large body of evidence from controlled research and criminal statistics that support link between sexual infidelity in males, jealousy and increased aggression

Question 24

evolutionary explanation of aggression: account for gender differences in aggression (A03) (3)

Answer 24

P: Evolutionary explanations account for gender differences in aggression

E+E: Males are physically bigger and stronger than women, and use aggressive behaviours to gain resources and assert their dominance. Women feel like they have ‘more to lose’ in fight, and don’t want to risk their own survival or that of their children so avoid situations involving physical aggression and resort to verbal aggression to resolve disputes

L: strength of evolutionary explanations of aggression because they can explain why men are more likely to be aggressive than women, particularly physically violent

Question 24

evolutionary explanation of aggression: cultural differences (A03) (4)

Answer 24

P: cultural differences in human aggression

E: aggression is due to evolutionary principles, we would expect all humans to universally show same levels of aggressive behaviours regardless of upbringing, however there are clear differences

E: iKung San look down on those who use aggression and will extradite those who use violence against another member of tribe However Yanomamo use aggression as status – female will only marry member of tribe if he has proven himself to be strong warrior

L: demonstrate weakness of evolutionary explanations of aggression because it seems likely these aggressive/non-aggressive behaviours have been influenced by socialisation and cultural norms rather than result of an evolved instinctive way of dealing with rivals

Question 25

social psychological explanations of human aggression: frustration-aggression hypothesis (A01)

Answer 25

Dollard originated the Frustration Aggression Hypothesis based on psychodynamic beliefs about role of catharsis in aggression

According to this hypothesis, aggression usually occurs in an outburst after person feels that their actions or goals are being blocked by some obstacle

Catharsis is about relieving feelings of frustration; aggression makes person feel better when they have an opportunity to vent or ‘let off steam’

Question 26

social psychological explanations of human aggression- frustration aggression hypothesis: indirect expression (A01)

Answer 26

Often person cannot express their true feelings of anger directly at obstacle causing frustration. For instance, it may be person in higher power than them or it could be anger at situational factor-People therefore use defence mechanism, displacement, to direct their anger at someone, or something else
Aggression can be expressed physically verbally or through fantasy

Question 27

social psychological explanations of human aggression- frustration aggression hypothesis: environmental cues (A01)

Answer 27

Berkowitz suggested that frustration does not make us instantly aggressive, but may create a ‘readiness’ for aggression. When people feel frustrated this heightens their emotional state meaning they are more likely to act on impulse if prompted by an environmental cue eg. someone is more likely to snap at an annoying friend if they are having ‘bad day’ but they might not have shown aggression if they hadn’t seen friend- shows that aggressive behaviour from internal anger can be triggered by external factors

Question 28

social psychological explanations of human aggression frustration aggression hypothesis: supporting evidence (A03) (1)

Answer 28

P: supporting evidence showing role of frustration in aggression

E+E: Green- investigate effects of frustration on aggression in lab setting
first part of experiment, male university students were asked to complete jigsaw puzzle while frustration was altered in different conditions:
Group One – puzzle was impossible to solve
Group Two – another ‘student’ kept interfering causing them to run out of time
Group Three – confederate kept insulting Ps for not being able to solve puzzle
second part of experiment Ps were given opportunity to give electric shocks to confederate when they made mistake on another task
average, Group Three gave most electric shocks and Group One gave least electric shocks-Green also repeated study using non-frustrated control group who were least likely of all conditions to give any electric shocks

L: supports the idea that people are more aggressive more they are feeling frustrated

Question 29

social psychological explanations of human aggression- frustration aggression hypothesis: supporting evidence showing role of environmental cues (A03) (2)

Answer 29

P: supporting evidence showing role of environmental cues in aggression

E+E: Berkowitz and LePage
Procedures: Students were given electric shocks by confederate to induce feelings of frustration. Ps were later given chance to shock confederate in return. Half of Ps were randomly allocated to condition where two guns were present on table next to shock machine
Findings: Ps in ‘weapon’ condition gave an average of 6.07 shocks which was significantly higher than control group who gave an average of 4.67 shocks

L: research suggests frustration causes readiness to aggression i.e. pull trigger

Question 30

social psychological explanations of human aggression frustration aggression hypothesis: aggression doesn’t have cathartic effect (A03) (3)

Answer 30

P: Some evidence shows that aggression does not have cathartic effect

E+E: Bushman found Ps who vented anger by repeatedly hitting punch bag became more aggressive rather than less aggressive He concluded that venting to reduce anger is like using petrol to put out fire

L: weakness of Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis as it criticises validity-could be that exposing someone to aggression increases their likelihood of future aggressive behaviours

Question 31

social psychological explanations of human aggression-frustration aggression hypothesis: individual differences (A03) (4)

Answer 31

P: individual differences in people’s reaction to frustrating situations

E+E: Some people are more pessimistic in nature and are more likely to experience emotions of self-defeat, depression or guilt rather than feeling angry or aggressive
Equally, some people act aggressively for reasons that don’t seem to be associated to frustration

L: weakness of the frustration aggression hypothesis as it cannot help us to predict when aggression will occur as aggression does not always follow feelings of frustration

Question 32

social psychological explanations of human aggression- social learning theory: direct + indirect learning (A01)

Answer 32

Bandura originated SLT theory building on behavioural approach to acknowledge that aggression may be learnt directly or indirectly-SLT suggests that direct learning of aggression happens through operant conditioning e.g. child who angrily snatches toy from their sibling and receives no reprimand or punishment for their behaviour will learn that aggression leads to rewards

Additionally, we can learn aggression indirectly if child’s friend watched this aggressive behaviour, they might be motivated to imitate, believing they too will not be punished. Children observe behaviours of their role models and are motivated to imitate these behaviours, particularly if it seems to lead to positive consequences Therefore, SLT would suggest that if child witnesses aggressive behaviours from role models they are more likely to act aggressively than child who has not observed aggression, or one who has seen people being punished for aggression

Question 32

social psychological explanations of human aggression- social learning theory: cognitive control (A01)

Answer 32

Bandura also acknowledged that people do not passively imitate aggression and have some cognitive control over their actions, so he focused on following mediational processes involved in social learning

Question 33

social psychological explanations of human aggression- social learning theory: self-efficiency (A01)

Answer 33

whether person is confident that their behaviour will lead to particular goal-If child regularly uses aggression to reach their goal then they learn how much force or aggression is necessary and become confident in using their own physical strength as means of getting what they want

Each time they successfully achieve their goal, their self-efficacy grows, meaning they believe that as aggression has worked for them in past, it will solve similar problems in future

Question 34

social psychological explanations of human aggression- social learning theory: supporting evidence showing role of social learning in aggression (A03) 1

Answer 34

P: supporting evidence showing role of social learning in aggression

E+E: Bandura et al found Children who had observed aggressive behaviours of an adult model in video, imitated almost identically what they had seen and acted aggressively towards Bobo Doll- control group who had not watched aggressive role models, did not act aggressively- replication of Bandura’s research showed adult being rewarded or punished for their aggressive behaviour- Children who observed an adult being rewarded were four times more likely to be aggressive than those who saw model being punished

L: findings demonstrate support for several key aspects of SLT including role of vicarious reinforcement in learning of aggressive behaviour

Question 35

social psychological explanations of human aggression- social learning theory: real life application to everyday aggression (A03) 2

Answer 35

P: real life application to everyday aggression

E: have been cases such as Columbine High School Massacre and Jamie Bulger murder which media have dubbed ‘copycat killings’, where children have observed violence in films and then imitated them on victims in real life

E: OFCOM have brought out age restrictions on certain media + watershed to censor some aggression being witnessed by children, implying that they do believe children may imitate aggressive behaviours that they observe

L: strength because this application of SLT as an explanation of aggression has been used to help improve society by limiting young peoples exposure to aggressive models and using prosocial role models whose behaviour is being reinforced

Question 36

social psychological explanations of human aggression- social learning theory: SLT applied to aggression is scientific (A03) 3

Answer 36

P: SLT applied to aggression is scientific

E+E: means the theory focuses on observable and measurable behaviour which can be tested in controlled conditions e.g. Bandura’s bobo doll research is highly controlled and learning demonstrated by children was clear to observe and measure

L: strength as it means SLT explanation of aggression is supported by empirical evidence

However mediational processes cannot be observed which means factors like attention and motivation have to be inferred- problem as this inference could be mistaken meaning we cannot empirically measure all aspects of SLT explanation of aggression

Question 37

social psychological explanations of human aggression-deindividuation: factors leading to deindividuation (A01)

Answer 37

term coined by LeBon to explain why some people lose their sense of personal responsibility eg. when in crowd, uniform or disguise- If individual feels anonymous they feel less responsible for their actions and are more likely to go along w/group behaviour which often includes acting aggressively towards rival groups- commonly known as ‘mob mentality’ where people stop thinking like they normally would as an individually and instead act aggressively as part of faceless crowd

Question 38

social psychological explanations of human aggression-deindividuation: self awareness types (A01)

Answer 38

1. Private Self-Awareness: regards paying attention to our own thoughts, feelings, and behaviour something we monitor when we are acting on our own- restricted when in crowd as our attention is focused outwardly rather than inwardly meaning we are more perceptive of environmental factors such as mood of crowd and absorb that energy including aggression
2. Public Self-Awareness: concerns how much we care about other people’s judgement and opinion of our behaviour and this is also reduced in crowds-We believe that others would be less likely to identify us for our actions and so consequences seem less likely meaning we are more likely to behave aggressively and not feel accountable for it

Question 39

social psychological explanations of human aggression-deindividuation: supporting evidence showing deindividuation in aggression (A03) 1

Answer 39

P: supporting evidence showing deindividuation in aggression

E + E: Zimbardo’s in his ‘Stanford Prison Experiment’ demonstrated that when people lose their sense of identity they become disinhibited stop monitoring and regulating their behaviour forget about potential consequences for their actions and act impulsively and emotionally- can ultimately lead people to carry out violent and aggressive acts that they never would have thought themselves capable of

L: research suggests anonymity leads to a higher chance of aggression

Question 40

social psychological explanations of human aggression-deindividuation: further supporting evidence showing deindividuation in aggression (A03) 2

Answer 40

P: further supporting evidence showing deindividuation in aggression

E+E: Dodd who asked 229 of his undergraduate Psychology students to anonymously answer following question: ‘If you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?’ Three independent raters who were not aware of the hypothesis then read answers and categorised them
Dodd found 36% of responses were classed as antisocial-26% were actual criminal acts most common was to ‘rob a bank’-Some responses were very violent such as murder, rape or assassination of political figure Only 9% of responses were prosocial or helpful

L: strength bc it shows that there is high internal validity as there is evidence that shows deindividuation in different situations

Question 41

social psychological explanations of human aggression-deindividuation: real-life application to everyday modern aggression (A03) 3

Answer 41

P: real-life application to everyday modern aggression

E: Douglas and McGarty looked at aggression online in chatrooms and instant messaging- found strong correlation between anonymity and sending threatening messages to other users

E: shows that people are more likely to act aggressively online when they feel anonymous

L: exactly what theory predicts eg. people do not self-monitor when part of group in chatrooms and therefore can be more aggressive bc they take on mood of group and do not feel personally identifiable

Question 42

social psychological explanations of human aggression-deindividuation: de-individuation can lead to pro-social rather than anti-social behaviour like aggression (A03) 4

Answer 42

P: de-individuation can lead to pro-social rather than anti-social behaviour like aggression

E+E: Johnson and Downing found in replication of Zimbardo’s electric shock study that Ps shocked more than control group when dressed like Ku Klux Klan but actually shocked less than controls when dressed in nurses uniforms

L: suggests that aggressive behaviour is dependent upon norms associated w/ uniform as opposed to uniforms themselves

Question 43

Institutional aggression in context of prison-dispostional explanation: importation model (A01)

Answer 43

focus on personality factors that people have before they enter prison and how this might prime them for aggression inside institution- Importation Model was devised by Irwin and Cressey who believed there are certain factors that criminals ‘import’ into prison that lead to aggression eg. beliefs, values, norms, attitudes, as well as personal characteristics such as gender, race, and class

Statistically, most aggressive inmates tend to be young ethnic minority males from lower class backgrounds; this could be due to variety of reasons -There is also higher aggression levels shown by prisoners who had issues such as addictions, or were members of gangs before being arrested These groups’ aggression levels in prison environment mirror their behaviour before they entered prison, and often history of impulsive aggression and violence is reason they were sent to prison in first place

Question 44

Institutional aggression in context of prison-dispostional explanation: supporting evidence (A03) 1

Answer 44

P: supporting evidence in dispositional explanation comes from Poole and Regoli

E+E: found that best indicator of violence amongst juvenile offenders was their level of pre-institutional violence, regardless of any situational factors in institution

L: suggests importation model may be stronger explanation of institutional aggression than deprivation model

Question 45

Institutional aggression in context of prison-dispositional explanation: supporting evidence of aggression being imported to prison (A03) 2

Answer 45

P: supporting evidence of aggression being imported to prison

E+E: DeLisi et al studied 813 juvenile delinquents in Californian institutions who imported w/them range of negative dispositional features including-experience of childhood trauma or abuse, addictions, and anger positive correlation was observed inmates w/most negative dispositional features were the most likely to be brought in front of parole board for being aggressive in institution-Compared to control group they were also more likely to engage in self-harm and suicide

L: positive because it can provide an insight for which individuals are more likely to be aggressive based
on their characteristics before entering prison- be an important practical application bc these
individuals could receive targeted support as soon as they enter institution- Fischer found that
isolating known gang members in special management unit reduced rates of serious assault by 50%-suggests research to importation model can help to reduce prison violence

Question 46

Institutional aggression in context of prison-situational explanation: deprivation model (A01)

Answer 46

focus on prison environment itself and how harsh conditions cause stress and strain for prisoners leading them to retaliate by acting aggressively- was devised by Clemmer who identified number of deprivations experienced by prisoners which correlated w/ aggression; Freedom, Independence, Material Goods, Safety and Intimacy

When person has their regular routine and luxuries taken away this leads to a loss of social norms so they adopt behaviours of others rather than acting like they normally would leading to some deindividuation and in turn aggression-Prisons that are overcrowded and regularly use punishments such as ‘lock-ups’ or taking away luxuries such as ‘TV time’ are more likely to experience prisoners acting aggressively-Deprivation of material goods and services can also lead to frustration and competition, so aggression becomes means of solving this problem

Question 47

Institutional aggression in context of prison-situational explanation: supporting evidence showing characteristics of prison itself is linked to aggression (A03) 1

Answer 47

P: supporting evidence showing characteristics of prison itself is linked to aggression

E+E: Steiner conducted meta-analysis on factors predicting aggression using data from 512 US prisons Aggression was more common in prisons w/particular characteristics eg. high proportions of female staff, high proportions of African-American and Hispanic inmates, and high proportions of inmates in protective custody for their own safety-higher the percentage of these characteristics more aggression

L: findings are strength bc they suggest it is possible to predict aggression when certain characteristics are present-However it is not possible to separate out which of situational factors are more important predictor of subsequent aggression

Question 48

Institutional aggression in context of prison-situational explanation: clear practical applications (A03) 2

Answer 48

P: research is that it has clear practical applications

E+E: early 1990s Wilson set up two units at HMP Woodhill that were less ‘claustrophobic’ and gave view of outside world, masked prison noise w/music from local radio station and lowered temperature so it was no longer so extremely hot- found that these changes virtually eradicated assaults on prison staff and other inmates

L: suggests that deprivation model can be used to help improve safety and security for staff and inmates alike by improving prison environment

Question 49

Institutional aggression in context of prison-situational explanation: contradictory research (A03) 3

Answer 49

P: contradictory research that criticises situational explanation for aggression

E: Hensley et al studied two prisons in Mississippi where inmates were allowed ‘conjugal visits’, meaning they were not deprived of sexual intimacy with their romantic partner

E: prisons had same levels of aggression as those who did not allow conjugal visits

L: problem as it suggests deprivation of heterosexual relationships does not affect prison violence

Question 50

Institutional aggression in context of prison-situational OR dispositional explanation: supporting evidence in prison violence (A03) 3+4

Answer 50

P: supporting evidence in prison violence for dispositional and situational factors

E+E: Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando found that deprivation model was better able to explain violence against prison staff whereas importation model was better able to explain violence against other inmates

L: strength bc suggests both explanations are effective at explaining different forms of institutional aggression

Question 51

Media influences on aggression: experimental studies (A01)

Answer 51

Conducted in lab short term effects of media on aggression-Bartholow and Anderson
Procedures: Student volunteers were randomly allocated to one of two conditions; they either played violent game ‘Mortal Kombat’ or a non-violent game ‘PGA Tournament Golf’ for ten minutes then carries out standard task that measures aggression

Findings and conclusions: played violent game gave significantly louder blasts of noise to their
opponent- concluded that violent computer games can cause an immediate increase in aggressive behaviour

Question 52

Media influences on aggression: correlational studies (A01)

Answer 52

Relationships between real life variables in media and aggression-DeLisi et al
Procedures: Used structured interviews to study 227 juvenile offenders w/histories of serious aggression such as hitting a teacher, parent, or gang fighting

Findings and conclusions: offenders’ aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated w/how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them- concluded that computer game violence is serious risk factor for aggression

Question 53

Media influences on aggression: meta analysis (A01)

Answer 53

Greitemeyer and Mugge performed meta-analysis of 98 studies and found that violent video game use was linked to an increase in aggression whilst
exposure to prosocial games was linked to an increase in prosocial behaviour-concluded that range of evidence supports the link between violent computer games and aggression

Question 54

Media influences on aggression: laboratory experiment research had high degree of control over variables (A03) 1

Answer 54

P: laboratory experiment research had high degree of control over variables

E+E: means research is conducted in controlled setting of a laboratory which allows extraneous variables to be controlled eg. type of violent game played and for how long

L: strength as research has high internal validity- therefore it is more likely we can make cause and effect conclusion eg. to say that it is playing of an aggressive computer game that has led to aggressive behaviour

Question 55

Media influences on aggression: laboratory experiments is that researchers have not measured ‘real-life’ aggression (A03) 2

Answer 55

P: laboratory experiments is that researchers have not measured ‘real-life’ aggression

E+E: means that ethical issues have restricted researchers to alternative measures of aggression eg. administering ‘noise blasts’ has been used in place of real aggression which is very different not least because it does not involve any fear of retaliation

L: problem as research may not represent real-life aggression

Question 56

Media influences on aggression: argued research has overstated effects of media (A03) 3

Answer 56

P: argued research has overstated effects of media

E+E: means although many results have been significant they typically report only small-medium effect sizes Furthermore, when focusing on small of number of studies that measure aggression towards another person influence of media on aggression is actually close to zero

L: suggests influence of media on aggression many be much smaller than is often though

Question 57

Media influences on aggression: practical applications (A03) 4

Answer 57

P: practical applications

E: means it shows negative effects violent media can have but also positive influence prosocial media can have on people which can be used to ensure media has positive influence on society

E: eg. greater censorship of aggressive media and promotion of prosocial media may well have positive effects on people

L: positive as ongoing research can help ensure media is force for good in society as much as possible

Question 58

Media influences on aggression-effects of computer games: role of desensitisation (A01)

Answer 58

Physiological responses to aggression are based on fight or flight response when someone witnesses violent actions, their sympathetic nervous system is activated, raising heart rate and blood pressure ready to respond to threat

However, more often people are exposed to aggression less sensitively their nervous system reacts to it, meaning more they play violent computer games, or watch violent media less of physiological arousal they show- suggests that people particularly children who have large exposure to violent media show less emotion in response to aggression in real life

Question 59

Media influences on aggression (effects of computer games) role of desensitisation: supporting evidence (A03) 1

Answer 59

P: Support for role of desensitisation comes from Krahé et al

E+E: found that Ps who reported regularly viewed violent media showed lower levels of arousal when shown violent film clips than non-regular viewers- Lower arousal was correlated w/unprovoked aggression in ‘noise blast’ task

L: supports view that regular exposure to media aggression does serve to ‘desensitise’ viewer but also that this desensitisation is linked to higher levels of unprovoked aggression

However research has been criticised for not measuring real-life aggression- bc delivering blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to punish opponent is very different to real aggression not least bc it does not involve any fear of retaliation. Furthermore, as aggression is only correlated w/‘desensitisation’ we cannot say desensitisation causes aggression merely that they are linked

Question 60

Media influences on aggression (effects of computer games)-role of desensitisation: desensitisation has both positive and negative real life consequences (A03) 2

Answer 60

P: desensitisation has both positive and negative real life consequences

E+E: positive side for army troops they can become desensitised to horrors of combat and therefore become more effective soldier- One practical application may therefore be to use violent media such as computer games to desensitise soldiers as part of their conflict training- negative side though Bushman et al suggest that exposure to violent media and resulting desensitisation can reduce helping behaviour which might otherwise be offered- become ‘comfortably numb’ to pain and suffering of others and are consequently less helpful

L: suggests awareness of role desensitisation in people’s behaviour is important in range of situations

Question 61

Media influences on aggression-effects of computer games: role of disinhibition (A01)

Answer 61

normal belief is that aggression is harmful and unacceptable in society children are taught that aggressive behaviour will receive punishments directly through operant conditioning or indirectly through SLT-children continue to interact w/violent media especially if they perceive that aggression was rewarded or not punished then their usual moral restraints become looser they minimise effects of violence and justify its use meaning they may act aggressively themselves in future

Question 61

Media influences on aggression (effects of computer games)- role of disinhibition: supporting evidence (A03) 1

Answer 61

P: Support for role of disinhibition in aggression comes from Berkowitz et al

E+E: found that Ps that watched film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more electric shocks of longer duration to confederate

L: suggests that media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it is presented as vengeance possibly bc vengeance is seen as strong justification for violence and therefore more socially acceptable

However chances of disinhibition occurring may depend on other factors- Heath et al found that children growing up in households with strong norms against violence are unlikely to experience sufficient disinhibition for them to exhibit aggressive behaviour, whereas disinhibition effect is stronger in families where children experience physical punishment from their parents and where they identify w/violent heroes-suggests there may be practical applications of this research in encouraging parents to prevent their children from feeling effects of disinhibition by establishing clear household norms and expectations around violence

Question 62

Media influences on aggression-effects of computer games: role of cognitive priming (A01)

Answer 62

According to Huesmann our life experiences help to write our schema or ‘script’ about violent situations which is stored in our memory ready to ‘play out’ when we encounter such situations in future-people who have had large amounts of exposure to violent media including violent computer games, music and other media they show more of readiness to act aggressively -are primed for aggression which means their schema may be ‘triggered’ by cues that they perceived to be more aggressive than others

Question 63

Media influences on aggression (effects of computer games)- role of cognitive priming: supporting evidence (A03) 1

Answer 63

P: Support for role of cognitive priming in aggression comes from Bushman

E+E: found that when undergraduates watched 15 minute segment of violent film they had faster
reaction times to aggressive words than those who had watched a non-violent film- Furthermore, Anderson and Dill found that Ps who played violent computer games had more cognitively accessible aggressive thoughts than did those who played non-violent computer games
-concluded that single incident of violent game play was enough to prime aggressive thoughts

L: suggests that exposure to violent media does increase ‘accessibility of violent thoughts and ideas as predicted by the theory

Question 63

Media influences on aggression (effects of computer games)- role of cognitive priming: may ignore biological factors (A03) 2

Answer 63

P: blaming aggression on influence of media may ignore role played by biological factors

E+E: eg. possible that aggressive behaviour may be at least in part genetic-Brunner discovered defective ‘MAOA gene’ in Dutch family w/history of male violence-Furthermore, testosterone has been shown play an important role in determining some aggressive behaviour

L: suggests media influence explanations of aggression may be limited in amount of aggressive behaviours
they can successfully explain on their own and other approaches may be needed to explain all cases of aggression