approaches Flashcards
Wundt’s Contribution
(A01)
Wundt founded Institute of Experimental Psychology
Wundt published one of first books on psychology helping to establish subject as an independent branch of science
description of Wundt’s approach − structuralism
use of the scientific method to study the structure of sensation + perception
use of introspection in controlled studies
use of controlled environments to establish general theories about mental processes
Wundt’s identification of higher mental processes-learning, language, emotions, etc that could not be studied in strictly controlled manner
development of field of cultural psychology based on general trends in behaviour of groups of people
Wundt introspection: procedure (A01)
- trained observers-presented w/controlled stimuli eg.ticking metronome
- Ps had to describe-stimuli-how it made them think and feel
- same stimulus
physical surroundings
instructions-given to everyone
introspection (A01)
internal events by examining your own conscious thoughts + feeling
Wundts contribution: research not scientific (A03) (1)
P: Wundt attempting scientific approach-but other psychologist eg. behaviourists criticised Wundt approach
E+E: private experiences eg. thoughts + sensations-self reported during introspection= not observable-so difficult to measure-so subjective not objective-behaviourists think Wundt Ps could be more objective + scientific-measure observable behaviour
L: weakness-undermines objectivity of Wundts work
Wundts contribution: application to cognitive processes (A03) (2)
P: although introspection-may not seem scientific-still used TODAY to gain access to COGNITIVE PROCESS
E+E: Griffths-used introspection-to study cognitive process of fruit machine gamblers + Ps where asked to think think out loud whilst playing fruit machine in microphone on their lapel
found regular gamblers= more irrational verbalisations than non-regular gamblers
L: introspection can have practical applications in MODERN SOCIETY
Wundts contribution: contribution of other psychological approaches (A03) (3)
P: Wundt’s methods have often been seen as start of cognitive psychology
E+ E: Cognitive psychology is modern-day psychological approach + it does attempt to measure what is happening in mind using scientific methods W/x Wundt some have questioned if cognitive psychology would exist today
L: strength bc Wundt’s methods have been incredibly influential to cognitive psychologists
what are the scientific methods (A01)
objective-w/x bias= making it fair
replicable=able to replicate exactly
controlled-under controlled conditions
predictable=results predict future behaviours
Wundts contribution: contribution to psychology as a science (A03) (4)
P: Wundt applied-scientific methods to studying the mind- modern day psychology=scientific discipline by many academics
E+E: if Wundt didn’t set up 1st psychology lab-study of mind would be still tied to philosophical roots-psychology might have never gained status as today-if not for Wundt
L: Wundts work paved for study of psychology as respected discipline
emergence of psychology as a science: 1900s behaviourists (A01)
Watson-behavoiurist- incorporated scientific methods-greater extent in psychology-by ensuring scientific process-used to investigate observable behaviour rather than mind
Watson focused on scientific processes-w/learning in controlled lab experiments
different viewpoint + methods-approaches= core belief of each approach ‘assumptions’ eg. behaviourist approach= behaviour is learnt-however other approaches would disagree w/assumption
emergence of psychology as a science: psychology timeline (A01)
17-19th century=psychology branched of philosophy
1879=Wundt opens 1st psychology lab
1900s= sigma feud establish-psychodynamic approach
1913= Wateson establish-behavourist approach
1950s= Rogers + Abraham develop-humanistic approach
1960s=cognitive revolution-came w/introduction of computer
Bandura proposes-social learning theory
1980s onwards=biological approach-establish as dominant force
21st century=cognitive neuroscience-emerges as distinct discipline
emergence of psychology as a science: modern psychology is scientific (A03) (1)
P: modern day psychology claims to be scientific
E+E: psychology-has same aims as natural science eg.
describe behaviour
understand behaviour
product behaviour
control behaviour
learning, biological + cognitive approach rely on use of scientific methods eg. lab studies-investigate theories in controlled + unbiased way
L: throughout 20th century + beyond-psychology has established itself as scientific discipline
emergence of psychology as a science: subjective data when studying psychology (A03) (2)
P: not all approaches use scientific + objective measures
E+E: humanistic approach rejects science + focuses on individual + subjective experiences-also studying human behaviour + Ps- most likely to have demand characteristics
L: scientific approach isn’t always possible to study human thoughts + experiences
behaviourist approach (A01)
explaining behaviour in terms of observing + learning so doesn’t consider thoughts + feelings
behaviourist approach: classical conditioning (CC) (A01)
learning by association- occurs when UCS + NS-repeated paired together
NS-produces same response- like unlearned stimulus
behaviourist approach: operant conditioning (OC) (A01)
learning is shaped by consequences eg. positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment
reinforcement-consequence of behaviour- increase behaviour being repeated- can be positive OR negative- removing the unpleasent behaviour to increase chances of being repeated
punishment: unpleasant consequences- decrease behaviour being repeated
behaviourist approach: key assumptions (A01)
- humans born on blank slate- TABULA RASA
- all behaviours learnt from environment eg. upbringing culture + society
- behaviourists are strongly on nurture side of future-nature debate
- regard genetic influences on behaviours as minimal
behaviourist approach PAVLOV: procedure (A01)
studied- digestion systems of dogs-by collecting salvia-develop (CC)-dog began to salivate before food
- before conditioning= (UCS) food–> salvation (UCR)
- before conditioning= (NS) bell–> no salvation (no CR)
- during conditioning= bell + food–> salvation (UCR)
- after conditioning= (CS) bell–> salvation (CR)
behaviourist approach: methods behaviourists use (A01)
- uses scientific approach + study things that can only be observed + measured eg. environmental + behaviour conditions
- uses controlled lab experiments-uses animals-researcher manipulates IV to see effect on DV-controlling extraneous variables
- behaviourist accept Darwin’s theory of evolution-humans have evolved from lower animals-animals replace humans as experimental subjects-behaviourist use rats, cats, pigeons to investigate how learning occurs
behaviourist approach PAVLOV: other points discovered (A01)
association-UCS + NS at same time
stimulus generalisation= animal conditioned-respond-other stimulus- similar to 1st CS
extinction=bell repeated w/no food-salvation disappears
behaviourist approach SKINNER: procedure (A01)
Skinner box-test effects of rewears on behaviour
hungry rat-in box-had lever + rat moved- accidentally knock lever
food pallet-drop into container-next to lever
few trials= rats quickly learn to pull lever to gain food
consequences of receiving food-rat repeat action again + again
behaviourist approach LITTLE ALBERT: findings (A01)
Albert now afraid of rat even when loud noise stopped
behaviourist approach LITTLE ALBERT: procedure (A01)
procedure- 9 months Albert- presented w/white rat + reaction noted
Albert present w/white rat again-but w/loud noise-repeated many times
white rat=infront of Albert + absence of loud noise
behaviourist approach LITTLE ALBERT: conclusion (A01)
even when loud noise stopped fear conditioned in young child + 5 days later Albert generalised little white objects as rat- animal= now AFRAID
behaviourist approach: positive reinforcement (A01)
receive reward-when positive behaviour performed
eg. lever pressing behaviour of rats in box-positively reinforced w/food pallets
behaviourist approach: negative reinforcement (A01)
avoid something unpleasant
behaviourist approach: punishment (A01)
designed to weaken OR eliminate
behaviourist approach research methods: no demand characteristics (A03) (2)
P: no demand characteristics-using non human Ps there won’t be possibility that they will work out aim of study
E+E: skinners study-although rats are quite an intelligent species there is no possibilities they would have been able to work out aim of study
L: strength-will not be unrealistically nice to please researcher nor will they go opposite way + demonstrate behaviour purposefully invalidate results-making behaviourist approach more valid
behaviourist approach research methods: ethical issues (A03) (4)
P: ethical issues-using animals in research raised ethical issues-animals often kept hungry + thirsty in order to motivates them in experimental procedures
E+E: in 1 version of skinners box study rats were electrocuted-cause physical harm
L: weakness-research should follow animal ethical code of conduct-where an animal should not be physically harmed during an experiment
behaviourist approach research methods: lack of generalisation (A03) (3)
P: lack of generalisation-most experiments used to support behaviourists approach are carried out on animals
E+E: pavlov used dogs as his sample-humans + dogs can’t be matched similarly on DNA unlike chimp w/98.4% match
L: weakness-questionable whether we can apply findings to humans-reduces validity of method + whole behaviourist approach-researchers give animals human characteristics called-anthropomorphism
behaviourist approach research methods: lab studies (A03) (1)
P: high control over variables-bc behaviourist approach uses lab studies-have such tight control over IV + extraneous variables-so clearly look at how stimulus lead to response when researching behaviour
E+E: in skinners study all variables were kept same apart form type of reinforcement
L: strength bc-cause + effect relationship between IV-type of reinforcement + DV-response of ear can be established
behaviourist approach: deterministic (A03) (1)
P: behaviourist approach accused of being deterministic- view of human behaviour
E+E: behaviourist approach sees all behaviour being controlled by past experience-that are conditioned-skinner suggest everything we do is sum total of our reinforcement history-skinner said any sense of free will is an ‘illusion’ + our past conditioning history controls our behaviour
L: weakness-approach suggest people are not responsible for their behaviour -if our past experiences control our behaviour-we can’t choose how to behave-if someone behaves immoral approach suggests its not their fault
behaviourist approach: application (A03) (4)
P: principles of conditioning applied to range of real-world behaviours + problems
E+E: OC-basis of token economy systems-successfully in institution- eg. token economies used in prison + psychiatric wards-work by rewarding appropriate behaviour w/tokens-exchanged for privileges
CC led to development of treatment for reduction of anxiety associated w/phobias-systematic desensitisation therapy on CC- eliminating learned anxious response w/feared object + replacing w/relaxation
L: strength bc of token economies is that they have been very successful in treating + correcting prisoners’ behaviour - systematic desensitisation has very high success rate of treating phobic patients shows that conditioning can be used in real-life
behaviourist approach: reductionist (A03) (2)
P: behaviourist approach accused of being reductionist-view of human behaviour
E+E: behaviourist approach reduce all complex behaviour down to conditioning
L: simplistic view of behaviour to think we only learn through positive OR negative reinforcement-approach ignores other contributions eg. role of cognitive processes of neurochemistry perhaps take electric approach
behaviourist approach: evidence (A03) (3)
P: research carried by Watson + Rayner supports behaviourist approach
E+E: Watson + Rayner discovered little Albert had no response when presented w/white rat-they presented white rat w/loud bag-after several pairings-Little Albert began crying by presence of white rat alone-Little Albert learnt through CC-associated loud bang as UCS w/white rat-conditioned stimulus causing conditioned response of fear
L: strength bc adds validity + credibility to behaviourist approach
SLT approach: methods SLT psychologists use (A01)
SLT shares w/ behaviourism-commitment to scientific method + has mostly employed lab experiments to investigate observations learning-lab experiment when research manipulates IV + record effect on DV
SLT approach: key assumptions (A01)
much of behaviour is learnt through conditioning-we also learn through observation + imitation-SLT suggests that learning occurs indirectly- we observe consequences of other peoples behaviour
SLT approach: imitation (A01)
SLT say people learn by observing what other people say + do-more likely to observe + imitate some people rather than anyone-ROLE MODEL
SLT approach: modelling (A01)
someone must 1st cary out behaviour or attitude to be learned-individual that performs role=model
live model-parent OR teacher OR member of peer group
symbolic model-someone portrayed in media eg. actress-models provide eg. of behaviour that can be observed by individual + later reproduced by imitating them
SLT approach: identification (A01)
extent which an individual relates to model + wants to be like them-more likely to happen if individual feels like they are similar
eg. same sex-in order to identify w/ model-observer must feel they would be likely to experience same outcome in that situation -if an individual identify w/model means they are more likely to imitate their behaviour
SLT approach: vicarious reinforcement (A01)
reinforcement-not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced
individual who observes model being rewarded for certain behaviour is more likely to imitate that behaviour as they want same reward
can observe consequences experienced by model + then make judgements as to likelihood of experiencing theses outcomes themselves
SLT approach: meditational processes (A01)
LEARNING BEHAVIOUR:
attention-observer must pay attention + observe behaviour-they must notice + pay attention to behaviour being modelled
retention-observer must remember behaviour seen-behaviour may be noticed but not always remembered
PERFORMING BEHAVIOUR:
reproduction- observer must be capable of reproducing behaviour they saw eg. must be physically capable of imitating behaviour-a 90 year old woman watching dancing on ice-she may really enjoy moves shown but she won’t attempt them as she’s not physically capable
motivation-rewards + punishment that follow behaviour will be considered by observer-if possible rewears greater than cost-behaviour will be more like imitated by observer
SLT approach BOBO DOLL: findings (A01)
GROUP 1: showed high levels of aggression in their play
GROUP 2: showed low levels of aggression in their play
GROUP 3: showed medium levels of aggression in their play
SLT approach BOBO DOLL: procedure (A01)
children aged 2-6 watched film of adult punching + shouting aggressively at bob doll-children divided into 3 groups viewing different ending:
GROUP 1: adult was rewarded w/sweets for aggressive behaviour
GROUP 2: adult was punished for their aggressive behaviour
GROUP 3: acted as control group + didn’t see end of film
children the placed in room w/various toys including Bobo doll + was observed
SLT approach research methods: standardised procedure (A03) (2)
P: Lab studies adopt standardised procedure + so can be replicated
E+ E: eg. Bandura’s study was standardised which meant that - repeat procedure exactly again + again to test impact of observation on imitation of aggressive behaviour
L: strength bc it is possible to check if findings are reliable
SLT approach BOBO DOLL: conclusion (A01)
study supports idea of vicarious learning-children learnt from watching consequences of adults aggressive behaviour
SLT approach research methods: high control variables (A03) (1)
P: lab studies have tight control over variables + eliminate extraneous variables
E+ E: eg. Banduras study all variables were kept same e.g. seeing same adult hit doll
L: strength bc it means that cause + effect relationship between IV + DV can be established
SLT approach research methods: lack of generlisabilty (A03) (3)
P: Lab experiments are carried out in artificial settings w/artificial scenarios
E+ E: Bandura’s study it isn’t an everyday situation that child sees an adult being aggressive to an inflatable doll
L: weakness bc it is questionable whether we can apply findings to real life/everyday behaviour it might not represent how children observe + imitate aggression in everyday life- lacks ecological validity
SLT approach research methods: demand characteristics (A03) (4)
P: human Ps there may be possibility that they work out aim of study
E +E: eg. Bandura’s study children were 3-8yrs of age there is possibility that older children may have worked out aim of study + shown either please you/ screw you behaviour
L: weakness bc if this happens they may attempt to ‘please’ experimenter + demonstrate behaviour they think experimenter wants or they may go opposite way “screw you” + try to demonstrate behaviour that is opposite of what
experimenter wants- Demand characteristics reduce internal validity of research
SLT approach: deterministic (A03) (1)
P: SLT described as less deterministic than behaviourist approach
E+ E: suggests that when person observes behaviour they have cognitive mental processes which allow person to then choose whether to imitate it eg. if child observes role-model acting aggressively they can choose if they want to imitate this aggressive act
If they are motivated they are more likely to choose to imitate behaviour
L: strength as SLT says our behaviour is not entirely determined-SLT takes into consideration that humans have certain amount of free will which is more positive way of looking at human behaviour
SLT approach: reductionist (A03) (2)
P: SLT accused of being reductionist on its view of human behaviour
E+ E: approach reduces all complex behaviour down to 1 cause eg. role of our models- approach believes all behaviour is observed + imitated
L: simplistic view of behaviour to think we only learn through mediational processes-approach ignores other contributions such as role of cognitive processes or neurochemistry + even role of unconscious mind
SLT approach: evidence (A03) (3)
P: many pieces of supporting evidence for SLT
E+ E: supporting research comes from scientific laboratory studies eg. Bobo aggression study supports SLT as it demonstrates power if child observing role-model producing an aggressive act child will then go onto imitate this aggressive act
L: strength as having supporting research such as this is good as it adds validity + credibility to social learning theory
SLT approach: application (A03) (4)
P: principles of SLT have been used to increase our understanding of why humans behave in pro-social or anti-social way
E+ E: SLT can be used to explain how children develop aggressive behaviour or gender stereotypical behaviour- gender behaviours + aggressive behaviours are modelled by same sex role models + these behaviours are then imitated by children especially if they expect to be rewarded
L: strength to know how children learn these behaviours from role models as parents may use theory to ensure they do not get exposed to these negative behaviours Parents can attempt to ensure that their children do not get over exposed to negative role models in media- could also ensure that only positive pro social behaviour is being modelled at home
biological approach: influence of genes on behaviour (A01)
body is made up of trillions of cells W/in most cells in human body is structure called nucleus
nucleus of every cell contains 46 structures called chromosomes Chromosomes are made up of complex chemical called DNA
DNA on each chromosome carries the units of information called genes
Our genes interact w/environment to influence every aspect of our bodily structure + function
biological approach: key assumptions (A01)
- understanding of brain structure + brain function can explain our thoughts, feelings + behaviour- All thoughts, feelings + behaviour have a physical basis
- Biopsychologists agree that genes influence behaviour bc genes we inherit are from our distant ancestors many biopsychologists think that behaviour + psychological characteristics have evolutionary explanations
biological approach: genotype (A01)
individual’s genetic make-up occurs at conception + provides the genetic code for how that individual will develop
biological approach: phenotype (A01)
product of what happens when genotype interacts w/environment w/physical characteristic
biological approach: genetic basis of behaviour (A01)
Behavioural geneticists are interested in degree to which psychological characteristics such as ability personality + emotional stability are transmitted from parent to offspring
well-researched human psychological characteristics that are thought to be influenced by genes are: Intelligence psychological disorders + male + female differences
biological approach BIOLOGICAL: neurons (A01)
Neurons are basic ‘building blocks’ of nervous system- nerve cells which are specialised to receive process + transmit information to other cells w/body
biological approach BIOLOGICAL: central nervous system (CNS) (A01)
CNS is made up of brain + spinal cord
brain can be subdivided into many different areas + structures which are thought to be responsible for certain behaviours
eg. Frontal lobes are involved w/ functions such as speech, thought + learning
brain relies on large no. of chemicals called neurotransmitters to send signals between neurones
Too much or too little of these chemicals can result in over activity or under activity in various parts of brain which results in changes to thinking, feeling + behaviour
spinal cord receives + passes message to and from brain + connects to nerves in peripheral nervous system
biological approach research methods TWIN STUDIES: prefect Ps (A03) (1)
P: Identical twins share 100% of genes + non-identical twins share 50% of their genes
E+ E: study it can be quite clearly seen that IQ has genetic basis due to there being 27% difference between concordance rates of identical + non-identical twins raised together
L: strength bc they are an ideal sample + provide useful data when trying to support biological approach
biological approach NEUROCHEMISTRY: neurotransmitters (A01)
Inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm brain + balance mood are called inhibitory neurotransmitters
Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is associated w/our “drive” + motivation. High levels of dopamine are related to schizophrenia
Serotonin is an inhibitory transmitter adequate amounts of which are necessary to maintain stable mood- Low levels of serotonin are related to depression
biological approach NEUROCHEMISTRY: evolutionary theory of behaviour (A01)
Natural selection occurs simply because some genetically inherited traits give possessor certain advantages possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce + pass on these genes/traits to future generations- individual survives but does not reproduce traits do not get passed on to future generations
biological approach research methods TWIN STUDIES: same environment (A03) (2)
P: problem w/twin studies that is very difficult to ignore- Identical twins are exposed to similar environmental conditions when they are being raised- parents dress them same + people get twins confused w/each other as they look identical this does not happen w/ non-identical twins
E+ E: eg. 87% of identical twins in above study probably would have shared very similar experiences Perhaps these environmental stimuli are reason they had higher concordance rates than non-identical twins
L: weakness bc it means that findings could just as easily be interpreted as supporting nurture rather than nature
biological approach research methods SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES: objective data (A03) (3)
P: methods favoured by biopsychologists are precise objective + highly scientific
E: eg. Raine’s study above psychologists were reading PET scan- means the data was objective + not open to subjective interpretation
L: strength bc it means results will therefore add validity to biological approach-biological equipment being so scientific this will increase inter-rater reliability as all of psychologists will interpret objective results same
biological approach research methods SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES: several weaknesses (A03) (4)
P: PET scans have weaknesses they are extremely costly + patient has to be injected w/radioactive substance + are less accurate than MRI scans
E+ E: Raines study this would have been quite an invasive method for Ps before their brain could be analysed they will have had radioactive substance injected into them
L: weakness because it could cause an already stressed patient even more stress
biological approach: concordance rate (A01)
extent to which both twins in sample share certain trait
biological approach: deterministic (A03) (1)
P: biological approach has been criticised for being deterministic
E+ E: sees human behaviour as being controlled by internal biological causes meaning we have no free will eg. Bruner concluded that MAOA gene led to aggressive behaviour in several generations of males in same family- indicates that violence is part of criminal’s biology + so they don’t choose to act in this way
L: weakness because it has implications for legal system and wider society- law is that offenders are legally and morally responsible for their actions- biological approach offenders are not morally responsible or to blame as they are controlled by their genes
biological approach: reductionist (A03) (2)
P: reductionist on its view of human behaviour
E+ E: reduces all complex behaviour down to 1 cause eg. role of neurotransmitters in our brain like Serotonin- said that low levels of serotonin can cause depression
L: simplistic view of behaviour to think that depression can only be caused by sertonin- ignores environmental factors or how faulty thinking could influence our behaviour
biological approach: application (A03) (4)
P: strength of biological approach is that biological research has led to many treatments being developed to treat psychological disorders
E+ E: Research into biochemical processes in brain has led to development of drug treatments Medication to treat serious mental illnesses such as depression + schizophrenia have been developed- drugs are not effective for all patients they have revolutionised treatment for many
L: strength bc this is strength of biological approach bc it means that sufferers are able to manage their condition + live relatively normal life rather than remain in hospital
biological approach: evidence (A03)
(3)
P: many pieces of supporting evidence for biological approach
E+ E: biological approach comes from twin studies + objective studies using biological equipment such as PET scans
Research has discovered concordance rates of depression: monozygotic (MZ) twins – 49%, dizygotic (DZ) twins – 17%, ordinary siblings – 9%
L: strength bc having supporting research such as this adds validity + credibility to biological approach particularly genetic explanation
biological approach TWIN STUDY: findings (A01)
MZ twins raised together – 87%
MZ twins raised apart – 72%
DZ twins raised together – 60%
Siblings raised together – 47%
cognitive approach: key assumptions (A01)
- Unlike behaviourists, cognitive psychologists believe it is important to look at internal mental processes in order to understand behaviour- cognitive psychologists investigate cognitive processes such as memory, perception, thinking attention + language-behaviourist concerend about behavioural response to stimulus,cognitive psychologist are concerened about mental processes between the stimulus and response
- mental processes are not observable so cognitive psychologists must study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds- devising models + then testing + measuring them scientifically
- cognitive psychologists our mind works like computer in terms of: input from our senses which it then processes + produces an output such as language or specific behaviours
cognitive approach: theoretical + computer models (A01)
both used to understand internal mental processes but theoretical models are abstract whereas computer models are concrete things
Cognitive psychologists encourage use of theoretical models as they support scientific approach to enquiring + testing- use of theoretical models means that components can be tested individually + examined in detail data from these experiments does not “fit” w/model it can be adjusted
eg. theoretical model is MSM
Computer models compare mind to computer by suggesting that there are similarities in way information is processed-models use idea of brain being hardware + mental processes eg. attention + perception are software-use concepts of ‘stores’ to hold information + concept of ‘coding’ to turn information in useable format
Cognitive psychologists use computer analogy to simulate human mental abilities in AI to perform tasks that require decision making-AI is concerned w/ producing machines that behave intelligently
cognitive approach: role of schemas (A01)
“packages” of information, beliefs + expectations in mind developed through experience -act as mental framework for interpretation of incoming information received by cognitive system- schemas that have been acquired through experience help you to respond to situation appropriately
our schemas become more detailed + sophisticated- Schemas enable us to process lots of info quickly + this is useful as sort of mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
schemas may cause errors in our processing of sensory information that we receive-experience situation or object that we do not have schema for we might ignore that information or misinterpret it so that it fits in with our existing schemas
cognitive approach: emergence of cognitive neuroscience (A01)
Scientific study of brain/neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, chemistry
are responsible for cognitive/mental/thinking processes
PET scans + fMRI scans now help psychologists to understand how areas of brain are linked to different cognitive activities + emotions- scans show which parts of brain become active when someone is engaged in cognitive task
Cognitive neuroscientists also study atypical brains- Brain injuries can be located using scans and patients are then asked to undergo cognitive tasks while scanning takes place- person w/injured brain has difficulty w/task it is inferred that damaged part of brain is responsible for that cognitive function
Cognitive neuroscientists study many different mental processes including brain activity linked to memory, attention + perception
cognitive approach: uses of cognitive neuroscience (A01)
use of scanning + imaging techniques eg. to locate different types of memory in different areas of brain, leading to treatment for memory problems
use of scanning/imaging techniques to study mental processing patients w/depression or OCD or in children w/autism or dyslexia
Use of computer simulations/computational modelling to test theories or hypotheses about mental processes such as attention, memory, problem solving
cognitive approach: soft determinism (A03) (1)
less deterministic than other approaches + adopts soft determinism view
E+ E: recognises that rather than being completely controlled by environment or being completely controlled by our genes we can make rational choices about how to behave -gives certain amount of importance to free will eg. mental processing of information allows us to choose how to act in any given situation
L: strength bc soft determinism is middle ground position which is different to hard determinism of behaviourist + biological approaches
cognitive approach: reductionist (A03) (2)
P: reductionist on its view of human behaviour
E+ E: reduces all complex behaviour down to 1 cause eg. faulty thinking + distorted schemas of world-believes that depression is caused by irrational thought processes
L: simplistic view of behaviour to think that depression can only be caused by Irrational thinking ignores environmental factors or how neurotransmitters may affect our behaviour
cognitive approach: evidence (A03) (3)
P: supporting evidence for cognitive approach
E+ E: eg. Johnson and Scott found in an eye-witness testimony study that weapon can lessen Ps ability to identify person holding it- may therefore explain why eyewitnesses sometimes have poor recall for certain details of violent crimes
L: strength bc having scientific supporting research such as adds validity + credibility to cognitive approach.
cognitive approach: application (A03) (4)
P: strength of cognitive approach is that it has been applied practically in real life to help people
E+ E: internal mental processes provided by cognitive approach has led to development of cognitive treatments such as C.B.T eg. cognitive approach has helped our understanding of way faulty thought processes lead to symptoms of depression
L: strength bc cognitive based therapies have led to successful treatment of people suffering from depression where faulty thinking is identified + altered
cognitive approach research methods: high control over variables (A03) (1)
P: Lab studies have such tight control over IV + extraneous variables
E +E: Johnson + Scott study all variables were kept same apart from 1 group saw knife + 1 group saw a pen
L: strength as it means that a cause + effect relationship between IV + DV can be established-certain that changes in accuracy of eyewitness testimony were result of whether Ps saw a weapon or not
cognitive approach research methods: lack of generalisation (A03) (2)
P: tight control over variables + elimination of extraneous variables means studies are artificial
E+ E: eg. Johnson + Scott study took place in an artificial lab People will act differently in lab compared to real life - real life variables are not tightly controlled + there might be other distractions when witnessing crime scene- lacks ecological validity as you cannot generalise findings beyond experimental setting
L: weakness bc it is questionable whether we can apply findings to real world + how an eyewitness might react + recall information in real-life crime
cognitive approach research methods: qualitative data (A03) (3)
P: Rich, detailed, qualitative data provides rich, in-depth detailed understanding of patient or situation
E+ E: eg. case of HM masses of data gathered has been very useful in cognitive psychology to help understand how memory works it has especially added to our understanding of areas of brain linked to memory + support for models of memory
L: strength bc case studies have proved very useful for studying abnormal behaviour + provided psychologists w/insights into things that they would not be able to design experiments on for ethical reasons
cognitive approach research methods: small sample size (A03) (4)
P: issue as case studies are often focused on 1 individual or small group of individuals
E +E: eg. case study of HM he was 1 individual in unique circumstances limits how far psychologists could generalise their findings from him to rest of population
L: weakness bc it means that they can be biased + unrepresentative of general population making generalisation difficult
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: ROLE OF UNCONSCIOUS (A01)
mind isn’t accessible to conscious thought he referred to this as unconscious mind-used metaphor of an iceberg to describe mind tip of iceberg being visible but much larger part being hidden by water
According to Freud most of our everyday behaviours are product of unconscious mind which reveals itself by slips of tongue + in neurotic mental health symptoms
Freud believed that mind actively prevents traumatic memories from the unconscious reaching conscious awareness
memories may cause anxiety: therefore mind uses defence mechanisms to prevent person from becoming aware of them
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: ID (A01)
operates in unconscious mind contains libido id operates according to pleasure principle
eg. demands immediate gratification regardless of circumstances
Only id is present at birth, throughout life id is entirely selfish + demands instant gratification of it needs
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: EGO (A01)
balances desires of impulsive id + in moralistic demands of superego
ego develops at age of 2 years + its focus is to reduce conflict between id + superego
therefore operates according to reality principle- way it does this effectively is through employing no. of defence mechanisms
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: SUPEREGO (A01)
formed at the age of five + w/ phallic stage of development our sense of what is right + wrong
Based on morality principle + it represents moral standards of same sex parent
punishes ego for anything we do wrong through feeling of guilt
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: REPRESSION (A01)
stops unacceptable thoughts + impulses- repressed thoughts + impulses continue to influence behaviour w/x individual being aware of reasons behind their behaviour
eg. child may have trouble forming relationships later in life but have no recollection of being abused as child by parent
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: DENIAL (A01)
refuses to accept reality + avoids having to deal w/any painful feelings that might be associated w/that event
individual acts as if painful or stressful life event hasn’t happened their friends + family may find this quite bizarre
eg. someone who has lost loved one may deny this even after they have been to their funeral
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: DISPLACEMENT (A01)
redirecting of thoughts or feelings in situations where person feels unable to express them at person they should be directing them towards
eg. individual has had an argument w/someone rather than confronting them + sorting it out they take out their anger on helpless victim or object
psychodynamic approach psychosexual stages: frustration (A01)
Childs needs not being adequately met
psychodynamic approach psychosexual stages: overindulgence (A01)
Childs needs may have been so well satisfied that they are reluctant to leave particular stage
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: ORAL (A01)
0-2 years
Focus of pleasure is mouth- mothers breast is object of desire
Oral receptive-too much pleasure- smoking, nail biting, eater, passive, gullible
Oral aggressive-too little pleasure sarcastic sense of humour, critical of others
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: PHALLIC (A01)
3-5 years
Focus of pleasure is genital area
Child experiences Oedipus complex or Electra complex
Phallic personality -narcissistic, reckless, possible homosexual
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: ANAL (A01)
2-3 years
Focus of pleasure is anus
Children gain pleasure from holding onto + expelling their faeces
Anal retentive-strict potty training perfectionist, obsessive, neat, stingy
Anal expulsive- lenient potty training thoughtless, messy, disorganised, overly generous
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: LATENCY (A01)
6-12 years
conflicts + issues of previous stages are repressed w/consequence that children are unable to remember much of their early years
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: GENITAL (A01)
12+
Sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: OEDIPUS COMPLEX (A01)
intense sexual feelings for his mother
small boy sees his father as his competition for love of his mother
He therefore wants dad to leave so that this mum can focus on him
boy is worried that his Dad will castrate him if he finds out he has feelings for his mum-castration anxiety
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: how to deal w/OEDIPUS COMPLEX (A01)
boy needs to befriend his dad- does this by engaging in activities that his dad pursues so that his dad sees his son as an ally not rival for his mum’s affections-identification
reduces boy’s anxiety + Oedipus complex is resolved + boy develops his superego + gender identity from his Dad
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: ELECTRA COMPLEX (A01)
sexual desires for her father mother as love rival for love of her father
girls at this stage they realise that they don’t have penis think mum has removed it + so at age of three they develop penis envy
psychodynamic approach key assumptions: how to deal w/ELECTRA COMPLEX (A01)
desire is not fulfilled it is substituted through the desire to have a baby
girl identifies w/mother + takes on her mother’s principles
resolution of Electra complex + girl develops her superego + gender identity
psychodynamic approach: determinism (A03) (1)
P: psychodynamic approach can be accused of psychic determinism in its view of human behaviour
E: means that there is no such thing as an accident
E: Freud thought even something as apparently random as “ a slip of tongue” is driven by unconscious forces eg. calling your new partner by your ex-partner’s name-Freud would suggest this is name you intended + is determined by unconscious forces w/deep symbolic meaning
L: weakness it implies that all behaviour are determined by unconscious conflicts that are rooted in childhood- free will we may think we have is an illusion
psychodynamic approach: reductionism (A03) (2)
P: takes an interactionist approach of both nature+ nurture- considered not reductionist
E: explains human behaviour as result of interaction between nature + nurture- Freud said we must all pass though fixed developmental stages + that environment we experience as we pass through these stages affects outcomes
E: our innate drives + libido force us through psychosexual stages-child who is fixated in oral aggressive stage because of lack of oral stimulation will become envious + pessimistic but child who is fixated in oral receptive stage through too much stimulation will be trusting + optimistic- environmental conditions interact w/innate drive + lead to uniqueness of personality
L: helps to explain why personality can be so varied + how individual experience need to be understood in order to explain person’s behaviour-recognises complexity of human behaviour in way that some other approaches do not
psychodynamic approach: evidence (A03) (3)
P: supporting research
E: supporting research of Freud comes from unscientific research methods such as case studies + clinical interviews
E: 1909 Freud published case study on phobia 5-year old boy named Little Hans had developed fear of horses after seeing an accident involving horse- Freud concluded that Hans was battling w/an unresolved Oedipus complex unconscious level child is expressing instinctive wishes to have sex w/his mother + kill his father-argued that boy’s ego had displaced this unconscious fear of his father onto horses + that Hans feared horses because he associated them w/his father
L: supporting research increases the validity of Freud’s psychodynamic theory data gained from case studies + clinical interviews provide lots of rich qualitative data as they interpret meaning of an experience to individual concerned
psychodynamic approach: application (A03) (4)
P: led to several effective therapies
E: applied most frequently through psychodynamic therapies to help people w/psychological problems
E: Psychoanalysis was developed by Freud to help patients w/neurotic symptoms overcome their problems + move on w/their lives Psychoanalysis can use dream analysis or free association to help patients examine contents of their unconscious in order to understand their current difficulties + get well
L: practical therapies give credibility to theory + in Freud’s case his approach showed importance of childhood experiences in adult mental illness- Freud showed that childhood trauma + problems need to be understood in order to help some patients recover
psychodynamic approach: Little Hans (A01)
1909 Freud published case study on phobia 5-year old boy named Little Hans had developed fear of horses after seeing an accident involving horse- Freud concluded that Hans was battling w/an unresolved Oedipus complex unconscious level child is expressing instinctive wishes to have sex w/his mother + kill his father-argued that boy’s ego had displaced this unconscious fear of his father onto horses + that Hans feared horses because he associated them w/his father
psychodynamic approach research methods: case studies are high in ecological validity (A03) (1)
P: Case studies are high in ecological validity + produce data on real-life experiences
E+E: Little Hans’ fear of horses was genuine phobia that would have affected his everyday life- Freud studied Little Hans in detail
L: strength bc it makes study more realistic than laboratory experiments which are artificial + often produce data low in ecological validity- Case studies such as Little Hans produce rich, qualitative data
psychodynamic approach research methods: Case studies produce small + unrepresentative (A03) (2)
P: Case studies produce small + unrepresentative
E + E: Little Hans was just 1 instance of horse phobia used by Freud Many people do not have psychotherapy or kind of phobic symptoms that would lead them to have therapy
L: weakness bc case studies are always 1 off studies of unrepresentative individuals makes results of these studies very difficult to generalise to other groups of people eg. it would not be realistic to generalise Freud’s interpretation of little Hans’ fear of horses to all people who have phobia of horses
humanistic approach key assumptions: FREE WILL (A01)
claims that human beings are self-determining + have free will doesn’t mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents who have ability to determine our worn development
reject scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour active agents we are all unique + psychology should be focused on individual’s subjective experience opposed to general laws- very person-centred approach
humanistic approach key assumptions: MASLOW HIERARCHY (A01)
human beings’ development can be healthy and fulfilled
hierarchy of needs Maslow shows how humans can become fulfilled by achieving certain needs which might prevent us reaching fulfilment if they were not met
- self-actualisation-LEAST !
- self-esteem
- love/belonging
- safety
- physiological-MOST !
psychodynamic approach research methods: case studies is that they often lead to researcher bias (A03) (3)
P: case studies is that they often lead to researcher bias
E+ E: Freud may have selectively focused on aspects of Little Hans’ behaviour that fitted in w/idea of an unresolved Oedipus complex
L: weakness bc for every case study that illustrates theory we do not know how many cases did not deliver kind of information that researcher wished to present
humanistic approach key assumptions: INFLUENCE ON COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY (A01)
Client –Centred Therapy
emotional problems adults face such as low self-esteem stem from gap between their actual + ideal self-established in childhood as result of conditional positive regard from parents + conditions of worth that follow
jobs of therapist:
1. Genuineness – being honest w/ client
2. Empathy – seeing world from clients view point
3. Unconditional positive regard – interacting w/x judgement + placing no demands on client
therapy is Non-Directive which means that therapists dont tell the clients what they need to do to solve their problems but assumes that clients know themselves best + can be encouraged to discover their own solutions- ultimate aim is for client to close gap on their actual + ideal selves + gain congruence so that they are able to steer their life towards growth + self-actualisation
humanistic approach key assumptions: SELF + CONGRUENCE (A01)
Rogers points out that we have another self or ideal-self representing how we would like to be- fulfilled + reach our potential ideal self + self-concept should be as similar to each other as possible- congruence
2 selves are incongruent then personal growth is not possible because of negative feelings caused by thinking that who we actually are is not how we would like to be
Some people might have distorted view of their self-image bc they are unable to see incongruence between their ideal + actual selves
individuals will not reach fulfilment because they are in denial of reality Denial is defence mechanism that protects + individual from recognising negative aspects of their life
humanistic approach: deterministic (A03) (1)
P: positive view of human condition + ‘brings the human back to psychology’
E+ E: essentially free + will seek to do good in order to achieve our potential is 1 that gives us reason to think that world can be better place Freud’s approach would have us believe we are doomed to despair + destruction whereas humanistic psychology believe we have individual freedom + are in control of our lives
L: strength bc it offers more optimistic + refreshing alternative to other more deterministic approaches
but approach does seem to contradict itself- Rogers says we have an innate tendency to achieve our full potential- If innate we have no choice
Maslow’s Hierarchy insists that deficiency needs must be met before growth needs which again suggests our behaviour is determined by forces we cannot change
humanistic approach: reductionist (A03) (2)
P: reject reductionism + any attempt to break up behaviour + experience into smaller components
E+ E: Behaviourism sees human behaviour in terms of simple stimulus response- Freud describes whole of personality as conflict between id, ego + superego biological psychologists reduce behaviour to basic biological processes + cognitive approach see humans as being little more than information processing ‘machines
humanistic psychologists advocate holism eg. humanistic psychologists support idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering whole person
L: strength bc this approach therefore may have more validity as it considers meaningful human behaviour in real life contexts
humanistic approach: evidence (A03) (3)
P: humanism has number of supporting studies
E+ E:eg. Van Houtte + Jarvis had sample of 130 pupils from USA they were put into 2 groups either pet owner or non-pet owner results showed that self-esteem was higher in pet owners compared to non-pet owner- 11-year olds pets were found to positively influence self-concept Pet owners reported higher autonomy across all age ranges
L: strength bc humanistic psychology emphasises importance of self-esteem + how this can have an impact on our mental health study demonstrates that if someone owns pet then this could have an increase on their self-esteem
humanistic approach: application (A03) (4)
P: Unlike some of other approaches humanism has relatively little real-world application
E+ E: lacking sound evidence base + also due to fact that approach has described loose set of rather abstract concepts Concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ + ‘congruence are too vague to understand
L: weakness as it may mean approach is not adopted into mainstream psychology
However - Rogers’ theory has revolutionised counselling techniques through client centred therapy which has been applied in individual + group settings
aim of therapy is to allow person to find their true self + get back on path to self-actualisation many clients this has led to happiness + fulfilment
humanistic approach research methods: unreliable (A03) (1)
P: Q-sort could be unreliable
E+ E: bc clients might want to believe that gap between their ideal self + actual self is narrowing + that they are becoming truer person in their own eyes
L: Q-sort is often repeated during therapy to measure improvement so expectation to see change will be strong
humanistic approach research methods: subjective measurements (A03) (2)
P: heavily relies on self-report techniques
E+ E: Q-sort does allow client to rate their self rather than being measured by researcher
L: strength as it is in keeping w/ humanistic view that person has to discover solutions for themselves + that it is subjective experience that matters not what researcher thinks
