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Psychology A2 > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

What are Sex-Role Stereotypes?

A

Socially and/or culturally defined sets of expectations we have about the behaviour of each gender. Learnt both implicitly and explicitly

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2
Q

What is Androgyny?

A

One person can display the behaviours of both gender

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3
Q

Who theorised Androgyny?

A

Bem (1970s)

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4
Q

Bem’s Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)

A
  • 20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral items

- 7-point Likert scale

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5
Q

What were scores given for in the BSRI?

A

Masculinity: high masculine, low feminine
Femininity: low masculine, high feminine
Androgynous: high ratio of both masculine and feminine

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6
Q

Criticisms of the BSRI

A
  • Describing androgyny, but not the opposite
  • This led to a fourth category being added: Undifferentiated
  • Fourth type has been criticised for lack of Construct Validity
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7
Q

What is the Female Chromosome?

A

XX

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8
Q

What is the Male Chromosome?

A

XY

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9
Q

What is in the Y chromosome?

A

The SRY Gene: binds DNA to control other genes. Involved in male gender development

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10
Q

How long does it take for sex organ development to be complete?

A

3 months

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11
Q

What are Leydig Cells?

A

Contained in the testes and respond to Lutropin by producing Testosterone. This drives male development

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12
Q

How common is Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Affects 1 in 10,000 males

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13
Q

What is the Klinefelter’s Chromosome?

A

XXY

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14
Q

Symptoms of Klinefelter’s

A
  • Born with a penis and develop male traits
  • Usually infertile
  • Lack muscular definition and have feminised masculine characteristics (slim jaw, less facial hair etc)
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15
Q

How common is Turner’s Syndrome?

A

1 in 2,000 females

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16
Q

What is the configuration of Turner’s Syndrome?

A

XO: one sex chromosome is damaged or missing

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17
Q

Symptoms of Turner’s

A
  • Born with vagina and womb, but undeveloped ovaries
  • No monthly period
  • Physically short/stout
  • Can have webbed neck, narrow hips, irregular internal organs
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18
Q

Role of Testosterone

A
  • Drives development of secondary male characteristics
  • ## Produced before birth
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19
Q

Role of Oestrogen

A
  • Controls menstrual cycle by increasing blood flow to uterus
  • Elevated during pregnancy
  • Present in all fetuses
  • Promotes secondary female characteristics
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20
Q

Role of Oxytocin

A
  • Promotes bonding behaviour
  • Causes milk production
  • Enables post orgasm bliss
  • Helps in wound healing
  • Produced in pituitary in response to skin-to-skin contact
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21
Q

What is the Cognitive Theory of Gender?

A

Kohlberg drew on his own development and Piaget’s idea that there are predetermined stages we all go through

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22
Q

Stage 1 of Kohlberg’s Theory

A

Gender Labelling

  • 2-3 years old
  • Children label themselves and others as ‘boy’ and ‘girl’ based on appearance only
  • Preoperational thinking. Lacks internal logic.
  • Children have schemata for simple masculine and feminine characteristics
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23
Q

Stage 2 of Kohlberg’s Theory

A

Gender Stability

  • 4-7 years old
  • Child realises gender is stable over time. No realisation it is stable across situations
  • Start to realise gender and appearance are separate so anyone can perform any behaviour
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24
Q

Stage 3 of Kohlberg’s Theory

A

Gender Constancy

  • 7+ years old
  • Start to develop belief that gender is independent of time, place or appearance.
  • Preferences for gender-appropriate behaviour
  • Gender is fixed, will reject gender-inappropriate behaviour
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25
Q

What is In-Group Bias?

A

Preferential treatment to those who belong in the same group as you do. E.g. the same sex

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26
Q

What is Out-Group Bias?

A

Tendency to dislike other people outside of your own identity group. E.g. Opposite Sex

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27
Q

What effect do Peer relationships have on Gender Schema?

A

Children learn that everyone has the same biases and fear rejection/hostility from their peers if they form relationships with out-group members.

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28
Q

What is Internalisation?

A

Accepting other’s beliefs because they resonate with yours

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29
Q

What is Identification?

A

Complying to gain access to a group, then accepting it over time

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30
Q

What can we use Identification and Internalisation to explain?

A

They explain in-group/out-group preferences, Gender Schema Theory, rejection of gender-inappropriate behaviour and persistent sex-role stereotypes

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31
Q

Four stages of the Oedipus Complex

A
  1. Boy desires mothers attention and sees father as a threat
  2. Wishes father was dead but fears the revenge if he discovers this and develops Castration Anxiety; this is repressed
  3. Imitates fathers behaviour to impress mother. Identification with male behaviours
  4. Conflict is resolved and boy no longer feels competition; Superego develops
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32
Q

Who theorised the Oedipus Complex?

A

Freud (1905)

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33
Q

Four stages of the Electra Complex

A
  1. Initially attracted to the mother but confused when they realise she has no penis
  2. Girl resents mother (Penis Envy) assuming she doesn’t have one because they mother castrated her
  3. Begins to feel sexual attraction to the father instead
  4. Fails to identify with father. Penis Envy replaced with desire for a baby and then identifies with mother’s role
34
Q

Who theorised the Electra Complex? And Why?

A

Jung (1913): Addressed the criticisms of Freud’s theories being gender biased

35
Q

Criticism of the Oedipus Complex

A

Suggests all healthy men have overcome their repressed anxiety. Those without a father will never attain this.
Could result in promiscuity or internalising female behaviours, leading to homosexuality

36
Q

Criticism of the Electra Complex

A

Implies girls identify with their mother as a compromise or a last resort; nobody chooses femininity.
Suggested feminine behaviours were inferior and showed weakness; settle for the woman’s role and this is why women are often ‘more anxious/immoral’

37
Q

What did Martin & Kalverson add to Kohlberg’s Theory?

A

(1981)

  • Learning of gender-relevant information happens before gender constancy
  • Gender labelling is enough to self identify as boy/girl and children will show preferences for gender appropriate behaviour here
  • Gender schema you form will have effects on psychological functioning later
38
Q

What is included in our Gender Schemata?

A
  • Information from TV/School/Parents
  • Information coloured by cultural norms
  • Full of stereotypical information
39
Q

What is In-Group Bias?

A

Form of favouritism towards your own group/ the group you belong to

40
Q

What is Out-Group Bias?

A

Tendency to have negative views of people that don’t belong to your group.

41
Q

What did Martin (1991) say about the role of Peer Relationships?

A

Children will fear rejection or hostility from peers if they form relationships with out-group peers

42
Q

What is Internalisation?

A

Accepting others’ beliefs because they resonate with yours

43
Q

What is Identification?

A

Complying to gain access to a group, then accepting the view over time.

44
Q

What can Identification/Internalisation be used to explain?

A

In-group/Out-group preferences, rejection of gender-inappropriate behaviour, persistence of sex-role stereotypes

45
Q

Who theorised the Oedipus Complex?

A

Freud (1905)

46
Q

Stages of the Oedipus Complex

A
  1. Boy becomes aware of sexuality and desires mothers’ full attention. Father is a threat/competition
  2. Wishes father was dead. Develops Castration Anxiety.
  3. Imitates fathers behaviour to impress mother. Starts to identify with male behaviours.
  4. Conflict is resolved. Superego develops.
47
Q

Who theorised the Electra Complex and why?

A

Jung (1913): addressed criticisms of Freud’s theory

48
Q

Stages of the Electra Complex

A
  1. Girl initially attracted to mother but are confused when they discover she has no penis
  2. Girl resents mother (Penis Envy), assuming she doesn’t have one mother felt inadequate and castrated her
  3. Girl feels sexual attraction to father instead
  4. Girl fails to identify with father. Penis envy is replaced by a desire for a baby, so identifies with the mother’s role
49
Q

Issues with the Oedipus Complex

A

Phallic Stage fixation:

  • Suggests all healthy men have overcome their repressed anxiety. Those without a father will never attain this
  • May become promisicuous because of internalised belief that women are unattainable
  • May also internalise female behaviour and become homosexual
50
Q

Issues with the Electra Complex

A

Phallic Stage fixation:

  • Implies girls identify with their mother as a compromise or last resort; no one chooses femininity
  • Suggests feminine behaviour is inferior and shows weakness; settle for the women’s role.
51
Q

What is culture?

A

Consensus norms, traditions and morals that are valued by society

52
Q

What is the view and expectations of women that most cultures have?

A

Often seen to be more conformist and less independent than men. Research has shown this to be false.

53
Q

What was Mead’s Gender study?

A

Study of Sex & Temperament in three Primitive societies. An overt ppt observation study in Papa New Guinea, a place with many small tribes all speaking the same languages.

54
Q

Mead (1935): what was the temperament of the Arapesh tribe men and women?

A

Men: gentle, cooperative, kind
Women: gentle, cooperative, kind

55
Q

Mead (1935): what was the temperament of the Mundugumor tribe men and women?

A

Men: Aggressive, machiavellian, narcissistic
Women: Aggressive, machiavellian, narcissistic

56
Q

Mead (1935): what was the temperament of the Tchambuli tribe men and women?

A

Men: Emotionally fragile, sensitive, anxious
Women: Assertive, hostile, domineering

57
Q

What is the media?

A

Methods of transmitting or storing knowledge

58
Q

What are the Codes for Men set by films/tv?

A

Confident, independent, assertive, interesting, complex, strong

59
Q

What are the Codes for Women set by films/tv?

A

Dependent, hysterical, anxious, unambitious, emotional, two-dimensional

60
Q

How does the media create Vicarious Reinforcement of gender?

A
  • Women are seen to succeed when they’re feminine
  • Men are seen to succeed when they’re masculine
  • Sex-relevant characteristics are usually exaggerated in protagonists and under-represented in antagonists. This affects self-efficacy
61
Q

What did Pingree’s study of Counter-stereotypes show?

A
  • Compared children watching stereotypical and non-stereotypical adverts
  • Significant difference in their answers on a questionnaire about gender-appropriate behaviours
  • Started a large gender-equality movement in the media
62
Q

What theorists suggested a Two Process Model for gender development?

A

Behaviour theorists. Bandura added social factors.

63
Q

What was Bandura’s theory of Indirect Reinforcement?

A

He combined vicarious reinforcement and observation, where identification was very important.

64
Q

How are the Mediational Processes applied to gender?

A

Mediational processes were renamed ‘Cognitive Processes’. Children undergo a cognitive assessment of new behaviours, comparing the expectations of reward vs punishment.

65
Q

How is gender maintained by Direct Reinforcement?

A
  • If a child performs a non-stereotypical behaviour and is ‘punished’ when other children mock them, the behaviour will become more frequent
  • When a peer rewards gender-appropriate, it becomes more frequent
  • When mocking leads to behaviour change that results in acceptance/praise, the new behaviour becomes more frequent
66
Q

What is Reciprocal Determinism?

A

Behaviour is determined by a feedback loop.

Behaviour > reflection > consequence > adjustment > behavior…….

67
Q

What is Gender Dysphoria?

A

Chronic distress due to perception of sex and gender mismatch. Excludes intersex conditions, which are biologically verifiable.

68
Q

What are some social pressure issues about Gender Dysphoria?

A
  • Culture bias is identified e.g Samoan culture has three genders
  • Social construction of gender in Western countries changes over time
  • The DSM V (2013)replaces GID with Gender Dysphoria
69
Q

What is the Gene explanation for Gender Dysphoria?

A

A possible transgender gene has been identified. Study of 112 M > F trans people.

  • Androgen receptor gene was significantly longer in transexuals
  • This reduces ability of testosterone to cause changes in development
  • Brain of transexuals may be much less masculine than average
70
Q

What are the Brain Structure explanations for Gender Dysphoria?

A

The BSTc is twice the size in straight men than women

  • Integrates information across the limbic system and this information is used to monitor stress-readiness levels
  • BSTc size correlates with preferred sex, not biological sex
  • M > F trans people’s BSTc is similar to the female average and F > M is usually within the typical male range
71
Q

How is Diathesis-Stress linked to gender?

A
  • Very few stable behavioural differences between men and women
  • Stress can change the gender of the brain in less than 15 minutes
  • Many environmental factors have been shown to change the default sex of developing brain regions
  • This can happen at all times but there are some brain areas that are vulnerable and some that are not.
72
Q

Real World Applications as an evaluation of Sex Role Stereotypes & Androgyny

A

P - It has many real world application
E - A british couple in 2012 raised their son in a gender neutral manne. He was aware that he was a boy, but in every other way did not identify with the gender.
E - There was a lot of protest by people who felt that this amounted to child abuse, which reveals how strongly people feel about sex-role stereotypes and that these are essential to healthy development.
L - Despite protests, it does provide ecological validity for the role of sex-role stereotypes in defining our gender identity.

73
Q

Reliability as an evaluation of Sex Role Stereotypes & Androgyny

A

P - Strong reliability
E - Research has demonstrated high test-retest reliability for the BSRI
E - A short form of the scale has been developed using 30 items and has a correlation of 90 with the original
L - Having this shorter form has improved the internal reliability of the test because the less socially desirable items were removed, like ‘gullible’ and ‘child-like’.

74
Q

Support for Androgyny as an evaluation of Sex Role Stereotypes & Androgyny

A

P - There is support for androgyny and psychological health relationship
E - Prakash et al (2010) tested 100 females in India on masculinity/femininity and there were a range of outcomes that related to health: physical health, depression, anxiety
E - Masculinity/femininity was measured using a personal attribute scale. Females with a high masculinity score had lower depression scores, and those with high femininity had high levels of depression.
L - Supports the view that androgyny has a psycho protective effect, because those with masculinity and femininity were better off in terms of health. This provides the theory with ecological validity.

75
Q

Real World applications as an evaluation for Chromosomes and Hormones

A

P - Has many real world application
E - Intersex people who will develop problems, can be identified at birth and given proper treatment during puberty. This can negate effects almost entirely.
E - Olympics ruled in 1991 that genetic sex didn’t matter for participation, after testing since 1968. Individuals who are obviously physically male are still excluded from female events.
L - This means more biological research into gender development is ecologically valid

76
Q

Biological Determinism as an evaluation for Chromosomes and Hormones

A

P - Biologically determinist theory
E - Money (1972) claimed that biological sex was not the main factor in gender development and argued that sex of rearing was was much more important and recommend that intersex individuals could be successfully raised as either a boy or a girl.
E - Supported by research that included 16 males with almost no penises. Two were raised as male and the remaining raised as female. The two males remained male but 8 of the females assigned themselves as male by the age of 16.
L - Research suggests that biological factors are key in gender development but the theory is highly deterministic as it seems to suggest that it is the deciding factor when environment can actually play a large role as well, raising a nature vs nurture debate.

77
Q

The role of Cultural and Social Influences as an evaluation of Chromosomes and Hormones

A

P - Role of cultural and social influences in gender
E - Batista family in the Dominican Republic contained four females with external female genitalia and were raised as female. Large amounts of testosterone produced during puberty caused male genitalia production. These children were XY, but there was an inherited gene of testosterone sensitivity.
E - Suggested that the ease of transition from female to male highlights the importance of culture. In a community prepared to accept more fluidity in gender roles, it seemed relatively easy to move between roles, which is not as easy in Western cultures.
L - Show the theory to be considerably reductionist.

78
Q

Construct Validity as an evaluation of Cognitive Explanations (Kohlberg’s Theory)

A

P - Lack of construct validity
E - Research shows boys develop gender constancy before girls, and girls perform masculine tasks. This indicates a single stage for both genders is invalid.
E - Huston (1985) suggests this is due to SLT; male role models are more socially powerful so boys are under greater pressure to identify and therefore do so quicker.
L - Highlights the nature-nurture debate in psychology; Kohlberg and Piaget’s assumption of fixed, generalised stages is based on biological determinism and ignores social learning factors.

79
Q

Age Differences as an evaluation of Cognitive Explanations (Kohlberg’s Theory)

A

P - Ignores age differences
E - Slaby and Frey (1975) found that gender constancy appeared at a younger age than Kohlberg suggested. Supports the idea that thinking does change over time but suggests that adjustments are necessary.
E - In the time since Kohlberg formulated his theory, children are now exposed to different kinds of gender information through media and may develop their understanding of constancy at a much earlier age.
L - Shows that the theory is reductionist and determinist and has little temporal validity as it doesn’t suit modern day gender development that is now highly influenced by the media, making the stages more inconsistent.

80
Q

Method Criticisms as an evaluation of Cognitive Explanations (Kohlberg’s Theory)

A

P - Criticisms of Kohlberg’s method
E - Bem (1989) has criticised the way children’s gender constancy is measured and argued that when children are asked to resolve the conflict between genitals and clothing, the child will go for a cue which is most relevant in our society.
E - Therefore we distinguish gender through hairstyle and clothing and children resolve this contradiction by identifying clothing, are simply showing that they have learned about our world.
L - Therefore, Kohlberg’s theory lacks internal validity and could be considered determinist as children might just be learning about societal expectations rather than gender itself.

Psychology A2 (21 decks)

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