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Psychology A2 > Biopsychology A2 > Flashcards

Biopsychology A2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are localised functions?

A

Complex organism evolve specialised nerves and certain functions become associated with the activity specific area of the brain.

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2
Q

What is the Motor Cortex’s function?

A

Stimulates and controls conscious physical movement

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3
Q

What is the Somatosensory Cortex’s function?

A

Synthesise sensory information from peripheral neurons to create physical sensations

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4
Q

What is the Visual Cortex’s function?

A

Receives, groups and passes on visual signals from the retina, through the optic nerve, giving us sight

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5
Q

What is the Auditory Cortex’s function?

A

Receives signals from the ears and creates auditory perception (hearing)

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6
Q

What is the function of Broca’s area?

A

Centre for language production. Combines essential signals from other regions to create speech.

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7
Q

What is the function of Wernicke’s area?

A

Centre for understanding language. allows us to interpret physical and verbal communication.

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8
Q

What is Wernicke’s Aphasia?

A

Loss of ability to understand language

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9
Q

What is Broca’s Aphasia?

A

Loss of ability to produce language

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10
Q

Reliability & Validity as an evaluation of Localisation of Function

A

P- There is evidence from scans and case studies
E- Stroke patients often show aphasia. Specific functions can be lost when a brain area is damaged.
E- However, these stroke patients have uncontrolled brain-damage. Reduces the extent to which their experience can generalise.
L- Important to consider research on healthy subjects as well to ensure external validity.

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11
Q

Evolutionary benefits as an evaluation of Localisation of Function

A

P- There are evolutionary benefits
E- Localised functions can be lost while the organisms other functions survive. This is a survival benefit.
E- Localised specialised brain areas allow greater flexibility and intelligence, leaving other areas free for other tasks.
L- The fact that all higher animals have similar brain localisation, suggests the theory is both generalisable and valid.

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12
Q

What is Hemispheric Lateralisation?

A

Left-right organisation of the brain is called lateralisation. Communication goes through corpus callosum. Some functions are localised in identical, mirrored areas of the brain. Others only occur in one hemisphere.

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13
Q

Which structures are in the Left Hemisphere only?

A

Wernicke’s Area & Broca’s Area

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14
Q

What is Contralateral Lateralisation?

A

Functional areas that are localised in both hemispheres will always connect to the opposite side of the body.

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15
Q

What was involved in Split Brain Research?

A

Patients with severe epilepsy that didn’t respond to drugs were virtually untreatable until the 1950s and surgeons experimented with all sorts of operations to stop the episodes. To structural candidates for surgery were the Hippocampus and Corpus Callosum.

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16
Q

How is Split Brain surgery different today?

A

The whole structured used to be severed, now only a small lesion is made.

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17
Q

Who is the main case study for Split Brain Research?

A

Henry Molaison. His whole hippocampus was removed.

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18
Q

Who conducted the Key Study for Hemispheric Lateralisation?

A

Sperry ( 1968)

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19
Q

Sperry’s Split Brain Research

A

Aim: Investigate hemispheric lateralisation in split brain patients
IV (1): stimulus number presented to right hand side
IV (2): stimulus number presented to the left hand side
DV (1): accuracy in reporting stimulus number via hand signal
DV (2): accuracy in reporting stimulus number via speech

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20
Q

What were the findings of Sperry’s Research?

A
  • Stimuli presented to the Right Hand Side can be reported verbally not signed with the right hand
  • Stimuli presented to the Left Hand Side can be signed with the right hand but not reported verbally
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21
Q

What did Sperry conclude in his Split Brain Research?

A

Severing the corpus callosum prevents lateralized functional areas receiving signals from the opposite side of the body. Language is lateralized to the left side of the body.

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22
Q

Age Differences as an evaluation of Hemispheric Lateralisation

A

P- There are age differences in brain lateralisation
E- Brain structures and their connections change over time due to plasticity. Older brains are less lateralized than young brains
E- Sperry’s research used only adult subjects, limiting the representativeness of its sample.
L- This means the findings are likely to lack population validity and are unlikely to have practical application

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23
Q

Brain Damaged Patients as an evaluation of Hemispheric Lateralisation

A

P- A limitation of the study used a small, brain-damaged sample
E- Sperry’s research has been branded unethical for showing patients previously unknown deficits- causing unnecessary psychological harm
E- However, he only conducted quasi-experiments and argued that his findings prompted further refining of the epilepsy surgery, preventing many others from experiencing disability
L- A cost-benefit approach is used in controversial research, and Sperry’s contributions to medicine and science are usually seen to outweigh the costs of his sample

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24
Q

What is Plasticity?

A

The ability to change and adapt in response to experience.

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25
Q

How does Neuroplasticity occur?

A

Humans are born with small, incomplete brains and connections are made after new experiences. Pathways that are used more will grow thicker and develop more branches. Pathways that are not used often enough are destroyed. Plasticity can also help us recover from injury.

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26
Q

What are the TWO types of Neuroplasticity?

A

Structural Plasticity

Functional Plasticity

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27
Q

What is Structural Plasticity?

A

(growth) Experience causes a change to brain structure.

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28
Q

What is Functional Plasticity?

A

(recovery) localised functions move from a damaged region to an undamaged region after injury

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29
Q

What are the FOUR stages of Growth & Change?

A

Stage 1: Synaptic Pruning
Stage 2: Neural Unmasking
Stage 3: Axonal Sprouting
Stage 4: Synaptic Connection

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30
Q

Synaptic Pruning stage of Growth & Change

A

Axons that aren’t used will weaken and eventually be lost

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31
Q

Neural Unmasking stage of Growth & Change

A

A hormone; Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) encourages growth

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32
Q

Axonal Sprouting stage of Growth & Change

A

‘Guidance proteins’ called neurotrophins sustain and encourage growth

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33
Q

Synaptic Connection stage of Growth & Change

A

The new connection makes its parent network stronger

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34
Q

What are the FOUR stages of Functional Recovery?

A

Stage 1: Axon damage (Axotomy)
Stage 2: Axonal Sprouting
Stage 3: Blood vessels reform (capillaries and glial cells)
Stage 4: Recruitment of Homologous areas

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35
Q

Axon Damage (Axotomy) stage of Functional Recovery

A

Axon is severed by an injury (dendrites would just regrow)

36
Q

Axonal Sprouting stage of Functional Recovery

A

New axon/dendrite growth towards target

37
Q

Blood Vessel Reform stage of Functional Recovery

A

‘Glial’ cells wrap around capillaries; blood-brain barrier

38
Q

Recruitment of Homologous Areas stage of Functional Recovery

A

Usually on the opposite side of the brain, Similar areas are recruited.

39
Q

Applications as an evaluation of Plasticity & Functional Recovery

A

P- Research shows ecological validity as it it successfully applied in health care
E- Mindfulness meditation has been linked to stronger and more numerous hippocampus/frontal lobe connections, which is used in anxiety treatment
E- This knowledge helps us develop rehabilitation programmes for people who are injured or need invasive brain surgery.
L- These applications show nature vs nurture often influence each other.; behaviour can change our biological structure. This is a good example of interactionism being being more successful than reductionist approaches

40
Q

Evidence as an evaluation of Plasticity & Functional Recovery

A

P- There is a substantial body of evidence supporting our understanding of plasticity and functional recovery
E- Macguire et al (2000) found hippocampal volume increased when working memory was used intensively, due to structural plasticity
E- Schneider et al (2014) found recovery from traumatic brain injury was positively correlated with years of education. They said education gave patients a ‘cognitive reserve’ to call on.
L- These results suggest strong external validity for our theories of plasticity and functional recovery. However, they are biologically reductionist and do not consider important cognitive factors like motivation, which might partially explain both these findings.

41
Q

What is DNA?

A

A ‘chemical code’ containing the information needed to build proteins. These proteins are what make the body work. DNA has symbols known as ‘bases’.

42
Q

How are DNA bases arranged?

A

They are arranged in base pairs (A & T and C & G)

43
Q

Process of an fMRI scan

A
  • Participant performs tasks in an electromagnetic tunnel
  • MAgnetic field aligns hydrogen nuclei
  • Radio pulse ‘flips’ nuclei, then they release energy when they realign
  • Energy differences are mapped using a coil
  • These are mapped onto a computer generated fram to produce images
  • Brighter areas have more blood flow
44
Q

fMRI scans as an explanation for Depression

A

Beck & Ellis presented cognitive theories saying depressed people misattribute events, they think emotionally not rationally. When scanned rational centres were inactive, and emotional areas were overactive.

45
Q

fMRI scans as an explanation for Psychopathy

A

Criminal psychopaths experience negative emotions and are very calculating but they are also impulsive and do not consider consequences. When scanned, rational,decision-making areas were inactive white emotional and action centres are overactive.

46
Q

Positive Evaluations of fMRI scans

A
  • Noninvasive
  • No radiation
  • More objective/reliable than self-report
  • Offers a window into things we cannot otherwise investigate in the brain
47
Q

Negative Evaluations of fMRI scans

A
  • Correlational data only
  • Measures blood flow, not actual activity
  • Shows which regions work. Modern psychology suggests its communication which is important and this cannot yet be seen on fMRI
48
Q

What are EEGs?

A

Electroencephalogram: measures activity in the brain using scalp contacts. Used to diagnose epilepsy, through spikes in activity, and Alzheimer’s, through reduced activity in certain areas.

49
Q

What FOUR wave types visible in EEGs?

A
  1. Gamma- Alert, learning, problem-solving
  2. Beta- Awake and aroused
  3. Alpha- Awake and relaxed
  4. Theta- Light sleep/dreaming/deep meditation
  5. Delta- Deep sleep/repair/dreamless
50
Q

Positive Evaluations of EEGs

A
  • Real time information about brain activity
  • Useful in clinical diagnoses
  • Low cost option for research
51
Q

Negative Evaluations of EEGs

A
  • Correlational data only
  • Only sees surface activity. Needs electrodes to measure deeper brain areas. In animals, we can, but in humans it is unethical and invasive
  • Not very sensitive. Electrodes pick up activity from a large area
52
Q

What are ERPs?

A

Event-Related Potentials: small changes in voltage within the brain can be detected using EEG machine.

53
Q

Process of ERP

A
  • Patient repeats an action many times
  • We record ‘normal’ baseline readings
  • We can infer what electrical activity was due to activity
54
Q

Two Types of ERP

A

Sensory ERP: within 100ms of the stimulus (detecting)

Cognitive ERP: after 100ms of the stimulus (interpreting)

55
Q

Positive Evaluations of ERP

A
  • Possible to see changes in brain activity in response to stimuli
  • We can record processing that has no behavioural response. We can tell when someone is thinking.
56
Q

Negative Evaluations of ERPs

A
  • Correlational data only
  • Need a very large number of trials to establish a response. This limits when/how it can be useful, it is time-consuming and expensive.
  • Cannot measure activity deeper in the brain, only useful for neocortical measurements
57
Q

What is Post-Mortem Examination?

A

If we look at the brains of people with known impairments while alive, we can then see what had gone wrong in their brains. Broca used this to learn about a language centre. HM was a good example of this also.

58
Q

Positive Evaluation of Post-Mortem Examination

A
  • Much more detail can be seen in scans.
  • All regions of the brain are available for study
  • Much of our early understanding of SZ was due to post-mortem studies. This is how we know about brain structure changes.
59
Q

Negative Evaluation of Post-Mortem Evaluation

A
  • Correlational data only
  • Lots of confounding variables. Drugs taken before death, degradation of brain tissue after death, diseases, age of brain
  • Only a snapshot. The person is dead so we can’t follow up or ask for history.
60
Q

What is a circadian Rhythm?

A

Biological rhythms are recurring patterns of behaviour in the body’s systems. In humans, evolutionary pressure on these rhythms included avoiding predators and repair/recovery/growth

61
Q

Sleep variation of the Sleep-Wake Cycle

A

Sunlight > Photoreceptor (retina) > SCN (hypothalamus) > Faint/red light > Melatonin (pineal gland) > Sleep

62
Q

Wake variation of the Sleep-Wake Cycle

A

Sunlight > Photoreceptor (retina) > SCN (hypothalamus) > intense/blue light > Cortisol (pituitary gland) > Wake

63
Q

Support as an evaluation of Circadian Rhythms

A

P- There is significant real life support for the role of light in circadian rhythms
E- ‘Wake Up’ alarm clock lights have been introduced recently which stimulate natural light patterns in order to make you sleepy/alert.
E- These are widely used with ASD and have strong clinical support
L- Provides circadian rhythms with external validity

64
Q

Individual Differences as an evaluation of Circadian Rhythms

A

P- An issue with this research is that it doesn’t consider individual differences
E- Firstly, studies have established a natural range of human sleep cycles between 13 and 65 hours (Czeisler et al 1999)
E- Additionally, Duffy et al (2001) found ‘larks’ and ‘owls’ in human sample; the former waking up early and the latter staying awake late, regardless of light or social cues.
L- These examples show the research is overly determinist; mistakenly assuming small samples allow valid generalisation. The view that identical biological structures would mean identical biological rhythms reveals biological reductionism. External factors, such as diet, exercise, and culture are likely to account for individual differences.

65
Q

What is an Ultradian rhythm?

A

Less than one day

66
Q

What is an Infradian rhythm?

A

More than one day

67
Q

What did Kleitman theorise about the sleep cycle?

A

The Basic Rest Activity Cycle (BRAC): 90 minutes day or night (1969)

68
Q

What are the five sleep stages?

A 
Stage 1: Light sleep 
Stage 2: second stage of non-REM
Stage 3: Deep sleep 
Stage 4: Very deep sleep
Stage 5: REM
69
Q

The First Sleep Stage

A

Light sleep (4-5%): Muscle activity slow. Occasional muscle twitching. Easily woken

70
Q

The Second Sleep Stage

A

Second Non REM Stage (45-55%): Breathing and heart rate slow. Slight body temperature decrease.

71
Q

The Third Sleep Stage

A

Deep Sleep (4-6%): deep sleep begins. Slow delta waves generated.

72
Q

The Fourth Sleep Stage

A

Very Deep Sleep (12-15%): Difficult to wake. Rhythmic breathing, limited muscle activity. Delta wave production.

73
Q

The Fifth Sleep Stage

A

REM (20-25%): Brainwaves speed up and dreaming occurs. Muscles relax and heart rate increases. Breathing rapid and shallow. Body is paralysed yet brain activity speeds up.

74
Q

What is Seasonal Affective Disorder?

A

SAD: a depressive disorder which has a seasonal pattern of onset and is diagnosed in the DSM-5.

75
Q

What are the main symptoms of Seasonal Affective Disorder?

A

Persistent low mood and general lack of activity or interest in life. Often referred to as winter blues, Triggered by the shorter daylight hours in winter.

76
Q

Is the Seasonal Affective Disorder ultradian or infradian?

A

Happens less frequently than 24 hours so Infradian.

77
Q

What is the Menstrual Cycle?

A

Female cycle that is governed by monthly changes in hormone levels which regulate ovulation. Refers to the time between the first day of a woman’s period to the day before her next period. Takes approximately 28 days to complete.

78
Q

Is the Menstrual Cycle Infradian or Ultradian?

A

Infradian as it occurs less frequently than 24 hours.

79
Q

What are Endogenous Pacemakers?

A

Internal stimuli for biological rhythms

80
Q

What are Exogenous Zeitgebers?

A

External stimuli for biological rhythms

81
Q

What are the two Endogenous PAcemakers?

A
  • Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

- Pineal Gland

82
Q

The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus as an Endogenous Pacemaker

A
  • SCN known as the body’s ‘master circadian clock’

- Contains neurons that fire in a synchronised pattern, which communicate with other pacemakers

83
Q

The Pineal Gland as an Endogenous Pacemaker

A
  • Receives the signals from the SCN to produce melatonin according to light levels.
  • Melatonin is an inhibitory transmitter derived from serotonin.
  • Inhibition of certain areas lead to sleep.
84
Q

What are two Exogenous Zeitgebers?

A
  • Light

- Social Cues

85
Q

Light as an Exogenous Zeitgebers?

A
  • Rods and cones in our body use opsins to detect light
  • We have a third receptor cell called (ipRGCs) which contain Melanopsin which is used to detect intensity/wavelength of light.
  • Light is detected through ganglion cells. Melanopsin reaches the SCN through the optic nerve
  • Neurons of SCN are synchronised using this information
86
Q

Social Cues as an Exogenous Zeitgebers?

A 
- We also use environmental stimuli to set our rhythms.
Examples of these are:
- Meal times.
- TV & Radio programmes
- Regular Working Patterns
- Clubs and hobbies
87
Q

Research support as an evaluation of EPs and EZs

A

P- There has been significant research support for Endogenous Pacemakers and Exogenous Zeitgebers
E- Role of SCN is supported by hamster transplant studies. Donor SCN always determined the circadian rhythm (Ralph et al 1990)
E- Furthermore, using lamps that mimic daylight allowed researchers to manipulate participants circadian rhythm in laboratory conditions (Vetter et al 2011)
L- While it shows importance of EPs and EZs in setting biological rhythms, it shows determinism. Animal models exposed to surgery lack external validity when applied to human functioning, and the artificial environment in the light study means these findings cannot be considered entirely ecologically valid.

Psychology A2 (21 decks)

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