Fundamental Planning Knowledge Flashcards
Ebenezer Howard would be most likely to promote the design and construction of which type of cities?
Garden Cities, he wrote garden cities of tomorrow
Who is considered the “father of American Zoning”?
Edward Murray Basset
What is the 14th amendment in accordance to planning?
No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law;
What is the 5th amendment?
No person shall be…deprived of…property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation
How many acres in one HECTARE?
2.47 Acres
how many sf in one acre?
43,560
how many acres on a per household basis does it take to feed the U.S. population?
2 acres
What is adaptive reuse?
Adaptive reuse is a specific term used to describe the process of adapting buildings for new uses while retaining many of their historic features.
Public Facilities Ordinance
A public facilities ordinance allows the city to determine when infrastructure will be extended and maintain an adequate level of service. New building permits would not be issued unless the infrastructure is adequate.
What is ADT?
Average daily traffic (ADT) is the measure most commonly used for traffic volume
Adverse Possession
Adverse possession is a method of acquiring title to a property by possession for a period of time, based on statute. Squatters rights are a specific form of adverse possession. Squatters typically do not have a right to the title of the property but cannot be removed without due process.
Homesteading
Homesteading occurs when the land has no legal owner or is owned by the government. The government allows homesteading with an expectation that the person occupying the property will undertake specific actions to gain the title.
Adverse abandonment
Adverse abandonment is associated with acquiring land abandoned by a railroad.
Advocacy Planning
Advocacy planning brings planning into the public eye and assists in recognizing the different needs of interest groups in the community.
A metric to measure housing affordability
median housing price to median income, A ratio greater than 2.5 indicates housing is unaffordable.
Is there a formalized accreditation program for planning departments?
no
Agins v. City of Tiburon established that a regulation is a taking if…
A regulation is a taking if it deprives the property of all economic value and does not advance a governmental interest and if it fails to advance a legitimate govt. interest.
A temporary deprivation does not cause a taking.
What is the most frequent land use in the U.S.?
Agriculture.
Because of urbanization, the amount of land in agriculture is declining and there is a trend toward larger farm operations. Still, small family farms (less than $350,000 in gross cash farm income) account for 90 percent of all U.S. farms. The U.S. EPA reports on major trends in agriculture.
The correct answer is: Agriculture is the most frequent use of land in the United States with 1/5 of land used for crops and just under 1/3 used for livestock grazing.
What is an SIP
States are required to develop a state implementation plan (SIP) for air quality. These air quality plans must include the following: Provisions for ozone nonattainment areas, provisions for carbon monoxide nonattainment areas, provisions for particulate matter nonattainment, and provisions for designated nonattainment for sulfur oxides, nitrogen dioxide, or lead. Transportation is a major source of air pollution—for example carbon monoxide, which is required to be addressed as part of the state implementation plan. Regional transportation plans and improvement programs would be expected to be included in an SIP.
Who is Alfred Bettman
lfred Bettman (1873-1945) was the first president of ASPO (American Society of Planning Officials) and one of the key founders of modern urban planning. Zoning, as we know it today, can be attributed to his successful arguments before the U.S. Supreme Court, which resulted in the 1926 decision in favor of the Village of Euclid, Ohio versus Ambler Realty Company.
The concept of the “Comprehensive Plan,” as used in most cities across the United States, is in no small part due to the work of Bettman and Ladislas Segoe on the “Cincinnati Plan.” Communities of all sizes across the United States can also thank Bettman for his part in creating the “Capital Improvements Budget.”
What Planning practice was highly influence through the Cincinnati Plan
Comprehensive Planning, Alfred Bettman
Village of Euclid, Ohio V. Ambler Realty Company
UPHELD THE CONSTITUTIONALITY OF THE ZONING ORDINANCE
The Ambler Realty Company owned 68 acres of land in the village of Euclid, Ohio, a suburb of Cleveland. On November 13, 1922, the village council passed a zoning ordinance dividing the village into several districts. The ordinance defined the use and size of buildings permissible in each district. Ambler Realty’s land spanned multiple districts, and the company was therefore significantly restricted in the types of buildings it could construct on the land. Ambler Realty filed suit against the village, claiming the ordinance violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s protections of liberty and property described in the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses. A federal district court agreed and issued an injunction against enforcement of the ordinance.
When was the Americans with Disabilities Act passed?
Passed in 1990.
The Americans with Disabilities Act passed in 1990. The ADA Amendments Act of 2008 overturned two controversial Supreme Court decisions and made the scope of the ADA more broad and inclusive. The 2010 ADA Standards for Accessible Design set minimum requirements for newly designed, constructed, or altered state and local government facilities, public accommodations, and commercial facilities to be readily accessible and usable by individuals with disabilities.
The correct answer is: The ADA passed in 1990 and was significantly amended in 2008. Current regulations are set in the 2010 Standards for Accessible Design, which replaced standards set in 1991.
Amatai Etzioni proposed which theory?
Mixed Scanning
Who founded incremental Planning?
Charles Lindblom
rational-Comprehensive Planning
Planners are rational/objective
public all has same interest
Planners can know what the public interest is
Who developed ADVOCACY PLANNING
Paul Davidoff
Base Realignment and Closure Act
he Base Realignment and Closure Act (BRAC) refers to congressional actions that streamline military base operations. Air Installation Compatible Use Zones address land use coordination with local governments around the base. Joint Land Use Studies are a joint planning effort between active military installations, surrounding communities and other agencies.
When was American Planning Association (APA) formed?
In 1978, the American Planning Association was consolidated from the American Institute of Planners (AIP) and the American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO). AIP was incorporated in 1917, as the American City Planning Institute, and renamed the AIP in 1939. ASPO was established in 1934.
Associated Home Builders of Greater East Bay v. City of Livermore
The Associated Home Builders case related to when building permits could be developed based on the availability of infrastructure.
Audience Response System (ARS).
An ARS is an instant polling software used in conjunction with a slide presentation. A USB receiver or base station retrieves the data provided by an audience using wireless hand-held devices and stores this information on the presenter’s computer. Some ARS programs offer the option of participating in the process via personal cellular phones or laptop computers. The most obvious benefit of ARS is the chance to receive instant and accurate feedback from the audience. This feedback is assumed to represent honest opinions because the answers are sent anonymously.
Auger Test
An auger can be used to retrieve soil samples and then examined for the soil profiles.
Berman V. Parker
Berman v. Parker upheld the use of eminent domain for aesthetic purposes.
Vi
Village of Belle Terre V. Boraas
Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas is a 1st and 14th amendments case dealing with freedom of association.
Construction Industry of Sonoma County V. City of Petaluma
Growth Management Case
Euclid V. Ambler Realty
Established Zoning as a constitutional use of government Police, aka Euclidean Zoning
Binary Variable
Can only take two values. i.e. 1 or 0, yes or no
What can a Board of Zoning Adjustments do?
A Board of Zoning Adjustments acts in a quasi-judicial manner and can grant variances and hear appeals. The correct answers are I.
1)Hear and decide appeals from determinations made by local zoning officials and
2) Grant variances to provide relief from the terms of the zoning ordinance.
what is Bridging
Bridging is used to bring the conversation back to the central message when questions take you off topic. All the other potential answers are communication tactics, but do not fit the definition established by the question.
what is police power
Police power is the power granted government to impose what it considers reasonable restrictions on the liberties of its citizens for the maintenance of public order and safety. A building permit, for example, ensures the safety of citizens.
Census
every ten years
how the U.S. Census Bureau collects data through the American Community Survey?
The American Community Survey uses a series of monthly samples to produce annually updated estimates for the same census tract and block groups that used to be surveyed via the decennial census long-form sample
The 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition included the _____________, designed by Daniel Burnham.
White City
what is a Chicane
A short, shallow s-shaped turn that requires drivers to turn slightly left and then right, slowing speeds down
What percent of households are multigenerational as of 2016?
20%
Cheney v. Village 2 at New Hope
In the case Cheney v. Village 2 at New Hope, the Pennsylvania State Court in 1968 found that planned unit developments are acceptable if the regulations focus on density requirements rather than specific rules for each lot.
- It was Held that ordinances creating a Planned Unit Development District and rezoning residential land to PUD did not constitute spot zoning.
it was Held that (1} the ordinances are valid, and (2) the borough planning commission has the power to approve development plans submitted to it under a specific ordinance.
Citizens to Preserve Overton Park V. Volpe
In the 1960s, Citizens to Preserve Overton Park filed suit against U.S. Secretary of Transportation John Volpe after he announced plans to build Interstate 40 through Overton Park in Memphis. The suit claimed that Vollpe was violating section 4(f) of the Dept. of Transportation Act of 1966, which required the government to show there were no “feasible and prudent” alternatives to using public lands, such as parks, when building freeways. In 1971, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, leading to a considerable increase in grassroots environmental organizing.
City Beautiful Movement
Proponents of the City Beautiful philosophy believed that aesthetics could have an effect on human behavior and social order. In their view, harmonious, beautiful public spaces would lead to social harmony and increased civic virtue.
What is the City Efficient Movement
What is the City Functional Movement
City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams
City of Rancho Palos Verdes established that administrative procedures can remedy violations of the Telecommunications Act, and that an individual cannot force compliance.
What is Title VIII of the 1968 Civil Rights Act?
Fair Housing Act, The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination and segregation on the basis of race, religion, national origin and gender in the workplace, schools, public accommodations and in federally assisted programs. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 provided for equal housing opportunities regardless of race, creed, or national origin. The Fair Housing Act (FHA) is also known as Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968.
Who devised the Neighborhood Unit Concept
Clarence Perry, in a regional Survey of New York and its environs
Who was the co-founder of the Regional Planning Association of America?
Clarence Stein
What does the Clean Water Act of 1972 cover?
If the body of water can be used to transport goods from one state to another it is covered by the Clean Water Act.
To what level of government are regional councils or councils of government (COGs) accountable?
A COG or regional council is a multi-service entity that delivers a variety of federal, state, and local programs, and they are accountable to local units of government. They can also function as partners for state and federal governments.
Cohort Survival Method
The Cohort Survival method, also known as the population pyramid, is one of the most detailed population estimation methods. uses the population at the time of the last Census divided into five-year age groups and gender. A death rate is applied to each age group. New groups are created based on birth rates and net migration rates.
Communicative Planning Theory calls for what kind of planning?
Consensus Building
What is CORBOR
he National Corridor Planning and Development Program and the Coordinated Border Infrastructure Program provided funding between 1999 and 2005, but was discontinued under The Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act and the Coordinated Border Infrastructure Program. (https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/septoct-1999/corbor-improves-safety-mobility-and-productivity)
Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
CPTED offers a safety-based approach to the design of the environment, including features such as lines of sight and lighting. An American Planning Association Policy Guide on Security provides for best practices in designing secure spaces https://www.planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/security.htm
“the rise of the creative class” argues that for a city to attract the CREATIVE CLASS, the three Ts are needed. what are they?
Talent (a highly talented/educated/skilled population),
Tolerance (a diverse community, which has a ‘live and let live’ ethos), and
Technology (the technological infrastructure necessary to fuel an entrepreneurial culture).
Cross-Sectional Survey
A cross-sectional survey is a type of survey that involves the analysis of data collected from a representative subset of a population at one specific point in time.
What is the Delphi survey technique?
Participants fill out a questionnaire and, after hearing one another’s replies, are then encouraged to revise their answers. The range of answers are decreased over time.
Which federal department is responsible for overseeing the National Register of Historic Places?
Department of the Interior
A discrete variable
has a finite number of values
Dichotomous variable
has only two values
drop off survey
where you drop off the survey at the home
What is moonlighting
When someone has more than one job.
What is a euclidean buffer
A Euclidean buffer measures the distance in a two-dimensional Cartesian plan—calculating straight line distances. This type of buffer works well when working at a city scale, and because this is a standard distance, from waterways, a buffer makes more sense.
what is a geodesic buffer
A geodesic buffer accounts for the curvature of the earth and would be used when the map projection is at a large regional scale or global scale.
Which city his home to the first historic preservation commission in the U.S.
New Orleans in 1924
Which zoning focuses on development standards, rather than use standards
form based zoning. Form-based zoning focuses on defining desired development patterns and allows the market to determine the use.
What is a future search
Future Search is a 2.5-day event designed to result in a common vision of the future. The event is organized into five tasks of approximately 3-4 hours each.
What is the Future Value Equation
FV = PV (1 + r)^n
Two main types of local governments
Two types of local governments are 1) general-purpose local government, which includes counties and townships, and
2) single-purpose, which includes school districts and fire districts.
general fertility rate
expressed as births per 1,000 persons calculated by the number of recorded live births in a year, divided by the mid-year female population between the ages of 15 and 44.
how many sf per acre
43,560 sf
what is groupware
Groupware includes a variety of electronic technologies that support virtual collaboration. These techniques use hardware, software, or internet technology to allow for sophisticated collaboration activities.
Which scientific measurement tracks environmental conditions over time?
Environmental indicator
Three elements of the Message Pyramid in order
1) Key Message
2) First Proof
3) Second Proof
An analysis that assesses the suitability for land development
land capability analysis
what are the sources of land use law in the U.S.
Common law, the constitution, and statutes
what is ordinal data
ordinal data is a categorical, statistical data type where the variables have natural, ordered categories and the distances between the categories are not known. i.e. level of education
nominal data
Nominal data is qualitative data used to name or label variables without providing numeric values. i.e. male/female
nominal group technique
The nominal group technique enables all members of a group to meaningfully participate in brainstorming. The nominal group technique allows for periods of silent reflection, allowing for idea generation and individual sharing.
a null hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the commonly accepted fact; it is the opposite of the alternate hypothesis. Researchers work to reject, nullify, or disprove the null hypothesis. Researchers come up with an alternate hypothesis, one that they think explains a phenomenon, and then work to reject the null hypothesis.
Open meeting laws require which governing body to have open meetings?
Open meetings laws require that Planning Commission meetings be open to the public. While some differences in open meeting requirements might occur across jurisdictional boundaries, the important concept captured by this question is the requirement to conduct Planning Commission meetings in public.
ordinances and regulations that impose conditions on the issuance or development permits (such as the reservation of land for beach access), but do not compensate the owner for the property MUST
I. The condition must have some essential nexus with the public purpose it seeks to fulfill
II. The condition must bear some rough proportionality to the impact of the development for which the permit is sought
III. The condition may be satisfied by the payment of a fee in lieu of (FILO) compliance
IV. Not result in the temporary loss of use of property while the application for the development permit is undergoing review by government staff.
Select one:
Oregon Measure 37
Oregon’s Measure 37 requires a landowner to be compensated if a land regulation results in a devaluation of the property—if they were the owner at the time the regulation was put in place.
Participatory Rural Appraisal technique
Participatory rural appraisal is a group of techniques that allow for the provision and analysis of information by the public. Participatory rural appraisals are typically highly visual, including the creation of maps or picture cards., FOR LOWER EDUCATED POPULATIONS
Planning Cells
“a deliberative method where randomly-selected, diverse participants collaborate on developing solutions to a given issue and report the resulting recommendations to the relevant decision-makers.” A planning cell allows citizens to learn about, assess and choose between multiple alternatives. Planning cells is a method for deliberation developed by Dr. Dienel, and is designed to be a “micro-parliament.” In a planning cell, approximately 25 people from various backgrounds work together to develop a set of solutions to a problem delegated to the participants by a commissioning body.
Coffee Klatch
An informal gathering at a neighbors house
Prescriptive Easement
A prescriptive easement is typically obtained under principles of adverse possession, i.e., a prescriptive easement can be earned through the ongoing and regular use of an otherwise unused property. A prescriptive easement allows the right to use the property and does not allow the farmer to gain title to the land.
Easement Appurtenant
An easement appurtenant allows access to your property, for example giving the right to use a neighbor’s driveway to access your property.
Easement in Gross
a public utility easement
Social Accounting Matrices
A social accounting matrix (SAM) is a framework for organizing statistical data about the economy. It considers household income, household expenditures, input-output of industries, trade, taxes, government expenditures, investments, and savings. A SAM is a tool for understanding economic actors and how policy changes could result in economic changes.
Traffic analysis zones
The correct answer is traffic analysis zones. Traffic analysis zones are geographic units that divide a region into similar areas of land use.
urban growth boundary
An urban growth boundary is a regional boundary that limits sprawl by mandating that the area inside the boundary be used for higher density urban development and the area outside be used for low density development, such as agriculture.
Vernacular architecture
uses locally available materials
A volume to capacity ratio of 1 indicates what of traffic
congested traffic flow
what is the typical walking radius for a TOD development
1/2 mile
Primary data
directly from responses to surveys, observations and data collected by the researcher
secondary data
from other researchers, existing data archives, journals, not by the researcher.
deductive logic
top down approach, start with general and moves to more specific.
Environmental determinism
the environment affects individual behavior
residential self-selection
people chose to live in places that support their preexisting lifestyle preferences
Inductive logic
bottom up approach. creates a grounded theory
cross sectional timeframe
a single point in time
longitudinal timeframe
analyzes data over several discreet periods
4 types of research design types
Randomized Experiments
Quasi-Experiments
Natural Experiments
Non-Experiments
Quasi-experiment
test hypotheses about causes and include a control group and frequently pretest measurements that are compared with posttest responses after the treatment.
i.e. comparing modes of travel in transit corridor before and after light rail line.
Natural Experiment
Individuals exposed to the experimental and control conditions are determined by nature or by other factors outside the control of the investigator, but the process of governing the exposures arguably resembles random assignment.
Non-experiment
lacks the random assignment found in true experiments and lacks the pretest observations and control groups found in quasi-experiments.
Phenomenology
view of a group that has witnessed or attended a phenomenon.
Ethnography
study of cultural groups in their natural setting over long periods.
tabular data
data that can be put into a table, with rows and fields.
raster data
two dimensional, flat data in a matrix format. i.e. satellite imagery.
spatial data
store locational characteristics along with geographic references in vector or raster formats.
vector data
can be three dimensional, x,y,z
how often is the U.S. census
every 10 years, started in 1790
what is the American Community Survey
long form census and is a nationwide SAMPLE survey on social, economic, housing, and demographic characteristics done EVERY YEAR
what year and where was the first national planning convention held
1909 washington dc
who authored and when, Wackers Manual of the Plan of Chicagoi
Walter Moody, 1912
What was the first major textbook on city planning, by who
Carrying Out the City Plan, Flavel Shurtleff
When was American City Planning Institute (ACPI) founded
1917
who was the president of the ACPI
Frederick Law Olmstead
When was the first issue of City Planning issued by ACPI?
1925
When was the American Society of Planning Officials Founded
1934
When did AIP adopt code of ethics
1971
When was APA Created and how
1978, merger of ACPI and ASPO
When was the first issue of the Journal of Planning Education and research published
1981
When did SF pass the first land use zoning restrictions on the location of NOXIOUS uses
1867
What was the first local civic center plan and who and when
Cleveland, Daniel Burnham, John CArrere, Arnold Brunner, in 1903
When and where was the first town planning board
Hartford, Connecticut 1907
Who created the First Metropolitan regional plan for Chicago and when
Daniel Burnham, 1909
What was the first city to use land use zoning to guide development
Los Angeles
When did NYC adopt its first comprehensive zoning code
1916, written by Edward Bassett
When did Los Angeles form its first Regional Planning Commission
1922
What year and who issued the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act
Secretary Herbert Hoover, 1924
Which city was the first to adopt a COMPREHENSIVE PLAN
Cincinnati, 1925, Alfred Bettman and Ladislas Segoe
what year and who released the Standard City Planning Enabling Act
Secretary Herbert Hoover, Department of Commerce, 1928
When was the first U.S. National Planning Board created
1933, then later abolished in 1943
Which was the first state to introduce state wide zoning, and when
Hawaii 1961
Author and year of HOW THE OTHER HALF LIVES
Jacob Riis, 1890, book resulted in the housing reform in NYC
Author and year TOMORROW: A PEACEFUL PATH TO REAL REFORM
Ebenezer Howard 1898, initiated the Garden City Movement
who initiated the Garden City Movement
Ebenezer Howard
Wackers Manual of the Plan of Chicago
Walter Moody, 1912, Adopted as a textbook for eighth grader in Chicago
first major textbook on City Planning
Carry out the City Plan, By Flavel Shurtleff, 1914
cities in Evolution
Patrick Geddes, published in 1915. Book centers on regional planning
Planning of a Modern City
Nelson Lewis 1916
This book was the first in the Green Book Series produced by the international city/county management association
Local Planning Administration by Ladislas Segoe, 1941
book became a common textbook on land use planning
Urban Land Use Planning by F Stuart Chapin, 1957
book defines basic concepts within the city as edges and nodes
Image of the City by Kevin Lynch 1960
book gives a critical look at planners, planning, with special focus on the mistakes of urban renewal
Death and Life of Great American Cities by Jane Jacobs 1961
book focuses on the negative effects of pesticides on the environment
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, 1962
The Urban General Plan
TJ Kent 1964
A seminal book on historic preservation
With Heritage So Rich, Alfred Reins 1966
book focuses on conservation design using an overlay technique that was later the basis of GIS
Design with Nature by Ian McHarg 1969
Who wrote The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces
The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, William Whyte 1980
who said “make no little plans. They have no fire to stir men’s blood”
Daniel Burnham
The father of landscape architecture
Frederick Law Olmsted
developed the Neighborhood Unit concept
Clarence Perry, Radburn New Jersey
founder of American housing policy
Catherine Bauer Wurster
What was the first American Garden City
Radburn, NJ, Designed by Clarence Stein and Henry Wright
provided for the rectangular land survey of the Old Northwest. The survey was completed following the end of the Revolutionary War and provided a systematic way to divide and distribute land to the public
The Land Ordinance of 1785
When did Congress pass the Homestead Act, and what is it
In 1862, Congress passed the Homestead Act, which provided 160 acres of land to settlers for a fee of $18 and a guarantee of five years of residence. The result was the settlement of 270 million acres or 10% of the land area of the United States.
What is the Morrill Act and when was it passed
1862 Congress passed the Morrill Act, which allowed new western states to establish colleges.
General Land Law Revision Act
In 1891, the General Land Law Revision Act was passed by Congress. This Act provided the President of the United States with the power to create forest preserves by proclamation.
Forest Management Act
In 1897, Congress passed the Forest Management Act, which allowed the Secretary of the Interior to manage forest preserves.
U.S. Reclamation Act
In 1902, the U.S. Reclamation Act was passed. It allowed the funds raised from the sale of public land in arid states to be used to construct water storage and irrigation systems.
Antiquities Act
In 1906, the Antiquities Act was the first law to provide federal protection for archaeological sites. The Act allowed for the designation of National Monuments.
Resettlement Administration
In 1935, the Resettlement Administration was formed to carry out experiments in population resettlement and land reform. The result was the development of Greenbelt towns.
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act
In 1944, the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, commonly known as the GI Bill, guaranteed home loans to veterans. The result was the rapid development of suburbs.
developed by Daniel Burnham, was the first regional plan in the U.S. It focused on incorporating ideas from the City Beautiful movement, especially waterfront development, parks, and civic center spaces. It was criticized for failing to address issues like housing, poverty, and transportation efficiency. It did not foresee the looming impact of the automobile.
The Chicago Plan of 1909
The Act required cities to develop comprehensive plans and provided funding for planning under Section 701. One of the problems with the 701 plan is that it led to the creation of plans for the purpose of acquiring federal funds rather than trying to truly plan for communities.
The U.S. Housing Act of 1954
Welch v. Swasey
upheld height limits
murphey v. california
upheld a prohibition on billiard halls
Reinman v. little rock
upheld ban on livery stables
hadacheck v. sebastian
upheld a ban on brick manufacturing
cusack co. v. city of chicago
upheld a billboard ordinance
pierce oil corp v. city of hope
upheld an ordinance prohibiting oil storage within 300 feet of dwellings
perley v. state of north carolina
upheld a requirement preventing removal of burning or waste timber
Wall v. midland carbon co.
ubheld a ban on carbon manufacturing
block v. hirsh
upheld rent control
penssylvania coal co. v. mahone
overturned a ban on subsurface mining
village of euclid v. ambler realty
upheld comprehensive zoning
zahn v. board of public works
upheld a residential zoning restriction
The property of plaintiffs in error is in zone “B,” in which, generally stated, the use is limited to buildings for residential purposes churches, private clubs, educational, and similar purposes. All buildings for private business are excluded, with the exception of offices of persons practicing medicine. The state supreme court, in a well reasoned opinion, upheld the ordinance and denied the relief sought.
corieb v. fox
upheld rules on building setbacks
miller v. shoene
upheld a decision requiring trees to be destroyed in order to save other trees
nectow v. city of cambridge
overturned a zoning provision that applied
berman v. parker
upheld the exercise of the power of eminent domaingold
blatt v. town of hempstead
upheld an ordinance regulating gravel mining
penn central transportation co. v. nyc
upheld historic preservation ordinance
kaiser aetna v. U.S.
overturned an attempt to impose the right of public access to a dredged pond
agins v. city of tiburon
upheld a zoning ordinance that restricted density
san diego gas and electric co. v. City of San Diego
A dissent by justice brennan in favor of compensation if regulation effects a taking
Loretto v. teleprompter manhattan CATV corp
Held that a regulation authorizing permanent physical occupation is an automatic taking.
Willliamson County Regional Planning Comm’n v. Hamilton Bank
Held that owners must seek a final decision about permitted development from a government before going to court and must seek compensation remedies from the state if available.
Macdonald, Sommer & Frates V. County of Yolo
held that owners must seek a final decision about permitted development from government before going to court
Keystone Bituminous Coal Ass’n v. Debenedictis
Upheld a restriction on coal mining.
First english evangelical lutheran church V. County of Los Angeles
Held that compensation must be paid for the period of time that a regulation effects a taking
Nollan V. California Coastal Commission
Held that a taking occurs when there is no essential nexus between a development condition and the purpose behind it.
Pennel V. City of San Jose
Upheld rent control Provision
Preseault v. ICC
held that an owners takings challenge of a federal rails to rails statute was premature
Yee v. City of Escondido
held that a rent control ordinance for mobile homes did not effect a physical taking
Lucas V. south carolina coastal council
Held that denial of all economic use is usually a taking
Dolan V. City of tigard
held that there must be a rough proportionality between a government imposed condition on proposed development and the impact of that development.
Suiturn V. Tahoe regional planning agency
Held that an owners takings claim was ripe.
owner does not need to attempt to sell their transferable development rights, in order to claim a taking.
City of montery v. Del Monte Dunes, ltd.
upheld a takings judgment in which a jury had considered whether denial of development permission was reasonably related to legitimate government purposes.
Del Monte Dunes sought to develop property it owned within the jurisdiction of the city of Monterey. Monterey continuously denied Del Monte Dunes’ proposals to develop the property. Each rejection was followed by stricter and more rigorous demands for a smaller, less intrusive development. After years of rejection, Del Monte Dunes decided Monterey would not allow development under any circumstances. Del Monte Dunes sued the city in federal court under 42 USC Section 1983, alleging that the denial of their final proposal was a violation of the Due Process and Equal Protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment. Moreover, Del Monte Dunes claimed, the continuous demands constituted regulatory abuse. The District Court submitted Del Monte Dunes case to the jury. The judge instructed the jury to find for Del Monte Dunes if the jurors found Del Monte Dunes had been denied every economically viable use for its property or if the city’s decision to reject the development did not directly advance a legitimate public purpose. The jury found for Del Monte Dunes on the equal protection and abuse claims, and it awarded monetary damages. The city prevailed on the due process claim. The Court of Appeals affirmed the rulings despite the city of Monterey’s objection to the use of a jury in government land-use regulation cases. It found no errors in the use of the jury or the jury’s decision.
Palazzolo v. rhode island
Held that the existence of a regulation at the time an owner acquires property does not preclude a subsequent takings claim.
Tahoe-sierra preservation council V. Tahoe regional planning agency
Upheld a moratorium
Lingle v. chevron usa
limited the application of a reasonable relationship analysis to physical invasion of circumstances.
Justice Sandra Day O’Connor delivered the Court’s unanimous opinion that the Court needed to “correct course” and make clear that the “substantially advances” formula put forth in Agins was inappropriate for determining whether a regulation amounted to a Fifth Amendment taking. Takings clause challenges to regulations had to be based on the severity of the burden that the regulation imposed upon property rights, not the effectivness of the regulation in furthering the governmental interest. The Court insisted that its ruling did not “disturb any of its prior holdings.”
Kelo v. City of new london
upheld a government exercise of eminent domain for economic development purposes.
where was the neighborhood unit concept first implemented?
Radburn , New Jersey
The Resettlement Administration
New Deal, Rexford Tugwell. idea to go outside city centers of population, pick up cheap land, build a whole city and entice people to live there. INSPIRED BY GARDEN CITY MOVEMENT. GREENBELT TOWNS.
Concentric Circle Theory
was developed by Ernest Burgess in 1925. Burgess was a sociologist who studied the growth of Chicago. He believed that cities grow in a series of outward rings, and land use is based on distance from downtown. There were five rings in his theory: 1) the central business district, which houses a concentration of governmental, office, and commercial uses; 2) the industrial zone; 3) the zone of transition, which has a mix of industrial and low-income housing (at one time this ring had high-income, large houses); 4) the zone of middle class housing; and 5) the commuter zone, with higher-income housing.
Harris and Ullman
Multiple Nuclei Theory
Homer Hoyt
Sector theory
Walter Christaller
Central Place Theory. The theory states that there is a minimum market threshold to bring a firm to a city and there is a maximum range of people who are willing to travel to receive goods and services. Central Place Theory can also be useful as a way of understanding the hierarchy of retail establishments in cities (for example nail salons on every block, a grocery store every 10 blocks, and a large shopping center servicing a much larger area).
1st Amendment
Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Religion, Freedom of Association
Within the framework of the First Amendment, freedom of speech applies to adult uses and signs. Freedom of religion applies to religious facilities. Freedom of association applies to group homes.
5th Amendment
Just compensation for takings. “nor shall private property be taken FOR PUBLIC USE WITHOUT JUST COMPENSATION.”
The Fifth Amendment requires just compensation for takings, so this amendment applies in cases of takings and eminent domain.
14th Amendment
Due Process, substantive due process, procedural due process, and equal protection.
“No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
The Fourteenth Amendment defines different types of due process. Due process can be applied to takings, eminent domain, and exactions (a condition for development imposed on a parcel of land). Substantive due process is about the validity of the rule itself, which in planning might include issues of aesthetics. Procedural due process is about whether the rules were applied fairly, which in planning might include how an ordinance was applied. Equal protection is often applied to exclusionary zoning.
Eubank V. City of Richmond
The state had a statute authorizing cities and towns to establish building lines. The ordinance allowed the owners of two-thirds of the land abutting any street to request a building line. The court struck down the ordinance because they were against the delegation of this authority to private citizens. However, the Court acknowledged that the establishment of building lines was a valid exercise of the police power.
Nectow V. City of Cambridge
Two years after Euclid v. Ambler, the Court used a rational basis test to strike down a zoning ordinance because it had NO VALID public purpose (e.g., to promote the health, safety, morals, or welfare of the public). The Court ruled that it was a violation of the due process clause of the 14th Amendment.
Brandt Revocable Trust V. U.S.
The Court found that the 1875 General Railroad Right-of-Way Act grants an easement for the railroad’s land. When the railroad company abandons the land, it should be settled as an easement and if the easement is abandoned, the easement disappears and the land reverts to the previous owner.
Massachusetts V. EPA
The Court held that the EPA must provide a reasonable justification for why it would not regulate greenhouse gases.
Rapanos V. United States
The Court found that the Army Corp of Engineers must determine whether there is a significant nexus between a wetland and a navigable waterway.
SD Warren V. Maine Board of Environmental Protection
The Court found that hydroelectric dams are subject to Section 401 of the Clean Water Act.
Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs V. Inclusive Communities Project
In this case, the Supreme Court was asked to evaluate whether disparate impact is the appropriate standard in which to evaluate the impact of the Fair Housing Act. Inclusive Communities Project claimed that the Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs was disproportionately granting tax credits to developments in minority neighborhoods and denying credits to developments within Caucasian neighborhoods. The Court held that Disparate impact is the appropriate standard to be applied to the Fair Housing Act. The result is that policies that even inadvertently relegate minorities to poor areas violate the Fair Housing Act.
Young V. American Mini Theaters
The Court upheld a zoning scheme that decentralized sexually oriented businesses in Detroit.
Metromedia, Inc. v. City of San Diego; U.S. Supreme Court (1981)
The Court found that commercial and noncommercial speech cannot be treated differently. The court overruled an ordinance that banned all off-premises signs because it effectively banned noncommercial signs.
Members of City Council v. Taxpayers for Vincent; U.S. Supreme Court (1984)
The Court upheld a Los Angeles ordinance that banned attaching signs to utility poles. The Court found that the regulation of signs was valid for aesthetic reasons as long as the ordinance did not regulate the content of the sign. If the regulation is based on sign content, it must be justified by a compelling governmental interest. The Court found that aesthetics does advance a legitimate state interest.
City of Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc.; U.S. Supreme Court (1986)
The Court upheld a zoning ordinance that limited sexually oriented businesses to a single zoning district. The Court found that placing restrictions on the time, place, and manner of adult entertainment is acceptable. The ordinance was treating the secondary effects (such as traffic and crime), not the content. The Court found that the city does not have to guarantee that there is land available, at a reasonable price, for this use. However, the city cannot entirely prohibit adult entertainment.
Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act of 2000
Following the Supreme Court’s ruling in City of Boerne v. Flores (see below), Congress passed the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act. The new act declares that no government may implement land use regulation in a manner that imposes a substantial burden on the religious assembly or institution unless the government demonstrates that imposition of burden both is in furtherance of compelling government interest and is the least restrictive means of furthering that compelling governmental interest. This act has been challenged in several legal cases, for example in Civil Liberties for Urban Believers v. the City of Chicago. In that case, the Court found that changes that the City made to their zoning ordinance brought the ordinance into compliance with RLUIPA. This act was also challenged in Cutter v. Wilkinson, U.S. Supreme Court (2005), where the Court ruled that the Act is a constitutional religious accommodation under the First Amendment’s Establishment Clause.
Reed et al. v Town of Gilbert Arizona (2014)
The pastor of a church rented space in an elementary school and placed signs in the area announcing the time and location of the church services. Gilbert’s sign ordinance restricts the size, number, duration, and location of certain types of signs, including temporary signs. Gilbert advised the church that it had violated the sign code through the placement of the temporary signs. The church sued Gilbert claiming that the sign code violated the free speech clause in the First Amendment, as well as the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The US Supreme Court found that the city cannot impose a more stringent restriction on signs directing the public to a meeting than on signs conveying other messages. The Court found the sign ordinance was not content-neutral.
United States v. Gettysburg Electric Railway Company; U.S. Supreme Court (1896)
The Court ruled that the acquisition of the national battlefield at Gettysburg served a valid public purpose. This was the first significant legal case dealing with historic preservation.
Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon; U.S. Supreme Court (1922)
The Court found that if a regulation goes too far it will be recognized as a taking. This was the first takings ruling and defined a taking under the 5th Amendment.
Berman v. Parker; U.S. Supreme Court (1954)
The Court held that aesthetics is a valid public purpose. The Court also found that urban renewal is a valid public purpose
Fred French Investing Co. v. City of New York; New York Court of Appeals (1976)
In this case, the city had put in place a regulation that required the placement of a public park on private property, leaving no income producing use of the property. The Court invalidated the regulation, but it was not ruled as a taking that should receive compensation.
Penn Central Transportation Co. v. The City of New York; U.S. Supreme Court (1978)
The Court found that the New York City Landmark Preservation Law as applied to the Grand Central Terminal did not constitute a taking. The Court found that a taking is based on the extent of the diminution of value, interference with investment-backed expectations, and the character of the government action. The Court weighed the economic impact of the regulation on investment-backed expectations and the character of the regulation to determine whether the regulation deprives one of property rights.
Agins v. City of Tiburon; U.S. Supreme Court (1980)
The appellants had acquired five acres of unimproved land for residential development. The zoning ordinance placed the appellants’ property in a zone with density restrictions (one single-family residence per acre). The appellants brought suit against the city in state court, alleging that the city had taken their property without just compensation in violation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, and seeking a declaration that the zoning ordinances were facially unconstitutional. The Court upheld a city’s right to zone property at low-density and determined that the zoning was not a taking.
Loretto v. Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corporation; U.S. Supreme Court (1982)
The cable television company installed cables on a building to serve the tenants of the building and to serve other buildings. The property owner brought a class action suit claiming that allowing the cable company to occupy the land was a taking. The Court found that the government authorized a permanent physical occupation of private property that therefore constituted a taking requiring just compensation.
First English Evangelical Lutheran Church of Glendale v. County of Los Angeles; U.S. Supreme Court (1987)
The Court found that if a property is unusable for a period of time, then not only can the ordinance be set aside, but the property owner can subject the government to pay for damages. The Court found that the County could either purchase the property out-right or revoke the ordinance and pay the church for its losses during the time of the trial.
Keystone Bituminous Coal Association v. DeBenedictis; U.S. Supreme Court (1987)
Pennsylvania’s Bituminous Mine Subsidence and Land Conservation Act prohibits coal mining that causes subsidence damage to pre-existing public buildings, dwellings, and cemeteries. The Act requires that 50 percent of the coal beneath four protected structures be kept in place to provide surface support. The Coal Association alleged that this constituted a taking. The Court found that the enactment of regulations did not constitute a taking and was justified by the public interests protected by the Act.
FCC v. Florida Power Corporation; U.S. Supreme Court (1987)
Public utilities challenged a federal statute that authorized the Federal Communications Commission to regulate rents charged by utilities to cable TV operators for the use of utility poles. The Court found that a taking had not occurred.
Nollan v. California Coastal Commission; U.S. Supreme Court (1987)
The question before the Court was whether the California Coastal Commission’s requirement that owners of beachfront property seeking a building permit need to maintain beachfront access constitutes a property taking in violation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. The Court agreed that a legitimate interest is served by maintaining a “continuous strip of publicly accessible beach along the coast,” but that California must provide just compensation to beachfront property owners for the public use of their land.
Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council; U.S. Supreme Court (1992)
The Court found that there is a taking if there is a total reduction in value (no viable value left) after the regulation is in place (except where derived from the state’s law of property and nuisance). The Court found that Lucas purchased the land prior to the development regulations being put in place, and so the regulation constituted a taking.
Dolan v. Tigard; U.S. Supreme Court (1994)
exaction
An exaction is a concept in US real property law where a condition for development is imposed on a parcel of land that requires the developer to mitigate anticipated negative impacts of the development.
Suitum v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency; U.S. Supreme Court (1997)
The Court, in this case, was answering the question of whether an owner must attempt to sell their development rights before claiming a regulatory taking of property without just compensation. The petitioner owned an undeveloped lot near Lake Tahoe, and the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency found that the lot could not be developed under the agencies’ regulations, but that Suitum could sell the development rights under the Transfer of Development Rights program. The Court ruled that Suitum did not have to attempt to sell developmental rights before filing a regulatory taking suit.
City of Monterey v. Del Monte Dunes at Monterey Ltd.; U.S. Supreme Court (1999)
The Supreme Court upheld a jury award of $1.45 million in favor of the development based on the city’s repeated denials of a development permit for a 190-unit residential complex on oceanfront property. The development was in conformance with the city’s comprehensive plan and zoning ordinance. The court found the repeated denials of permits deprived the owner of all economically viable use of the land.
Palazzolo v. Rhode Island; U.S. Supreme Court (2001)
The question before the Court was whether a property owner who acquired title to a property after regulations were in place could still bring a takings claim under the Fifth Amendment. The property owner claimed inverse condemnation against the Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council because the landowner was denied a permit to fill 18 acres of coastal wetlands to construct a beach club. The Supreme Court found that acquisition of title after the effective date of regulations does not bar regulatory taking claims.
Palazzolo v. Rhode Island; U.S. Supreme Court (2001)
Palazzolo v. Rhode Island; U.S. Supreme Court (2001)
The question before the Court was whether a property owner who acquired title to a property after regulations were in place could still bring a takings claim under the Fifth Amendment. The property owner claimed inverse condemnation against the Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council because the landowner was denied a permit to fill 18 acres of coastal wetlands to construct a beach club. The Supreme Court found that acquisition of title after the effective date of regulations does not bar regulatory taking claims.
Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Council, Inc. et al. v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency et al.; U.S. Supreme Court (2002)
The Tahoe Regional Planning Agency imposed two moratoria on development in the Lake Tahoe Basin while the agency formulated a comprehensive plan for the area. A group of property owners sued, claiming a taking. The Court found that the moratoria did not constitute a taking requiring compensation.
Lingle v. Chevron USA, Inc.; U.S. Supreme Court (2005)
The Court overturned a portion of the Agins v. City of Tiburon precedent (see above) declaring that regulation of property does effect a taking if it does not substantially advance legitimate state interests. The Court found that Takings clause challenges had to be based on the severity of the burden that the regulation imposed, not the effectiveness of the regulation in furthering the governmental interest.
City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams; U.S. Supreme Court (2005)
The Court ruled that a licensed radio operator that was denied a conditional use permit for an antenna could not seek damages because it would distort the congressional intent of the Telecommunications Act of 1996.
Kelo v. City of New London; US Supreme Court (2005)
The Supreme Court ruled that economic development, even if it involves taking land for private development, is a valid use of eminent domain. The Court reasoned that it is not in a position to determine the amount or character of land needed for a particular public project.
Stop the Beach Renourishment Inc v. Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2009)
The Supreme Court ruled that submerged lands that would be filled by the state for beach reclamation did not constitute a taking of property without just compensation (in violation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments).
Koontz v. St. John’s River Water Management (2012)
Mr. Koontz requested a permit from the St. John’s River Water Management to develop additional land beyond what was allowed under the original permit. St. John’s agreed to issue the development permit on the condition that Koontz deed the rest of his property into a conservation area and complete additional mitigation work. Koontz refused to undertake the mitigation work and St. John’s denied the application. The key question facing the Court was whether the government is liable for a taking when it denies a permit until a landowner agrees to dedicate land for public use. The Supreme Court found in favor of Koontz, noting that there was no specific regulation requiring the dedication and mitigation work and that a taking had occurred.
Munn v. Illinois; U.S. Supreme Court (1876)
The Court found that a state law regulating pricing did not constitute a violation of due process. The Court established the principle of public regulation of private businesses in the public interest. The Court found that the regulation of private property does not violate due process when the regulation becomes necessary for the public good.
Mugler v. Kansas; US Supreme Court (1887)
The Court found that a state law prohibiting liquor sales did not constitute a taking and violation of due process. “A prohibition simply upon the use of property for purposes that are declared, by valid legislation, to be injurious to the health, morals, or safety of the community, cannot, in any just sense, be deemed a taking.”
Village of Belle Terre v. Boaraas; US Supreme Court (1974)
The Court upheld a regulation that prohibited more than two unrelated individuals from living together as a single-family. The court found that a community has the power to control lifestyle and values. The Court thus extended the concept of zoning under the police power to include a community’s desire for certain types of lifestyles.
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corporation; US Supreme Court (1977)
Zoning case that denied rezoning of a property from single family to multi family for the Metro Housing Development Court. The US Supreme Court found that there was insufficient evidence to prove that the Village acted in a racially discriminatory manner and overturned the findings of the previous two courts. They reprimanded to the lower court for further consideration.
Southern Burlington County NAACP v. Township of Mount Laurel; New Jersey Supreme Court (1975)
The Court found that Mount Laurel had exclusionary zoning that prohibited multi-family, mobile home, or low- to moderate-income housing. The Court required the town to open its doors to those of all income levels.
City of Boerne v. Flores; U.S. Supreme Court (1997)
This case challenged the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. The City of Boerne, Texas prohibited a church in a historic district from enlarging. The Supreme Court ruled that the act was an unconstitutional exercise of congressional powers that exceeded the enforcement powers of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the end, the city and church came to an agreement to leave 80 percent of the church intact and allow a new 750-seat auditorium on the rear of the auditorium.
which amendment allows for state police powers
10th Amendment, which gives states the rights and powers “not delegated to the United States.” States are granted the ability to regulate behavior and enforce laws that will sustain the health, safety, morals and general welfare of the people
Dillon’s Rule
Dillon’s Rule applies in states where the rights of cities are only those that have been specifically authorized by the state.
Home Rule
those in which cities have the right to develop their own regulations.
Mixed Scanning
Mixed scanning improved upon incrementalism by recognizing the difference between policy-changing decisions and implementation decisions. As an example, a comprehensive plan would be created using the rational planning approach, while the implementation of the plan would use an incremental approach.
Transactive Planning
In transactive planning, the planner meets with individuals in the community to discuss issues and help develop a plan. Through a process of “mutual learning,” the planner shares technical knowledge, while the citizens provide community knowledge.
Radical Planning
taking power from the government and giving it to the people. Citizens get together and develop their own plans.
Urban Area per Census
at least 2k housing units or have a population of at least 5000
Urbanized Area
urban nucleus of at least 50k
Urban Cluster
at least 2500 but LESS THAN 50k
Metropolitan Statistical Area
(MSA) includes at least one city with 50,000 or more inhabitants, or an urbanized area (of at least 50,000 inhabitants), and a total metropolitan population of at least 100,000.
Micropolitan Statistical Area
(MSA) has a population of more than 10,000 people and less than 50,000 people. This includes a central county and adjacent counties that have a high degree of social and economic integration as measured by commuting.
Census Designated Places
concentrations of populations that are NOT INCORPORATED
Consolidated MSA’s
made up of several PRIMARY METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREAS
Core Based Statistical Area
(CBSA) is defined by the US Office and Budget to provide data description for areas where there is a core area with at least 10,000 people that when combined with other adjacent communities is socially and economically integrated.
Megalopolis
Multi city urban area of MORE THAN 10 MILLION PEOPLE
Census Tract
2000-8000 people
Census Block
400 housing units per block
Census Block Group
600-3000 people, used to present data and control block numbering
Minor Civil Division
usually only corresponds to a municipality
Census County Divisions
used in 21 states with no MCD
baby boomers
born between 1946 and 1964
Gen X
born between 1965 and 1976
Millenials
1977 to 2000
Howard’s three garden cities
Letchworth
Welwyn
Wythenshawe
three greenbelt cities
Greenbelt
greenhills
Greendale
Who wrote the science of muddling through
Charles Lindblom, Incrementalism
Who helped design Riverside, Il
Olmsted
Who wrote The City is the Frontier
Charles Abrahms, argued against urban renewal
Where was the neighborhood unit concept first implemented?
Radburn, NJ
who designed an overlay technique that was later the basis of GIS.
Ian Mcharg
First director of NYC Planning Commission
Rexford Tugwell
who wrote the first comprehensive Zoning Code for NYC
Edward Basset, father of American zoning
who was the father of Regional Planning
Paul Gedes
Who wrote Broadacre city
Frank Lloyd Wright
Modern architect and founding member of the Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM),
Le Corbusier
who founded central place theory
Walter Christalter
Who designed forest hills gardens?
Olmsted Junior
what was the first regional plan in the us
Chicago plan of 1909
When and where was the first City Beautiful plan adopted by a major American city?
SF, destroyed in fire
What is the ‘Green Book’ and what are its origins?
The ‘Green Book’ is an important reference in city planning. Ladislas Segoe wrote the first book in the Green Book Series, published in 1941 and produced by the International City/County Management Association.
What was considered the first Garden City in the U.S.?
Sunnyside Gardens, Clarence Stein
Amortization of Use
giving people enough time to make back their initial investment of the property before having them stop something
i.e. big with phasing out billboards
Sherry Arnsteins 3 Levels of Participation
- non-participation
- Tokenism
- Citizen Power
Sherry arnstein, two types of NON-PARTICIPATION
- Manipulation
- Therapy
Sherry Arnstein, three types of Tokenism
Informing
Consultation
Placation
Sherry Arnstein, three types of Citizen Power
Partnership
Delegated Power
Citizen Control
How many states apply Dillon’s Rule to all municipalities
39 States
