Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Research Eval > Freshmen > Flashcards

Freshmen Flashcards

1
Q

Observes associations

Show patterns of disease occurrence

Helps to generate hypotheses

A

Descriptive Research

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Analyzes associations

Investigates relationships

Tests hypotheses

A

Analytic Research

or explanatory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

_____ epidemiologic studies reveal the patterns of disease occurrence in human populations

A

Descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Provide general observations concerning the relationship of disease to basic characteristics.

Person
Place
Time

A

descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Descriptive studies examples

A

case reports

clinical series

populations (ecologic studies)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Attempt to provide insight into etiology or find/ determine better patient outcomes:

A

Explanatory Studies

analytic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Has an active intervention from the investigator.

Examples:
Controlled trial
Clinical trial
Educational intervention
Healthcare trial
Intervention trial
A

experimental

descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Investigator observes nature.

Examples:
Case-control
Follow-up
Cross-sectional
Cohort or follow up
A

observational

descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

A narrative in the professional literature that identifies a single incident and discusses pertinent factors related to the patient

A

Case Report

Information is preliminary and unrefined in terms of research methodology

(descriptive)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

this type of study analyzes a number of individual cases that share a commonality

A

case series

descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Examine adverse events or effects

Catalog new diseases or outbreaks

Determine the feasibility or safety of a new treatment or intervention

Discuss the potential efficacy of a new treatment

A

Case series

descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Case reports and case series lack

A

“sufficient methodological rigor”

Data does not necessarily extrapolate to larger populations

Evidence may be circumstantial

Confounding factors may be present

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

both typically indicate the need for further study

A

Case reports and case series

descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Examine the relationship between exposures and diseases as measured in a population rather than in individuals.

A

Ecologic studies

descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Is a type of bias specific to ecological studies. Occurs when relationships that exist for groups are assumed to also be true for individuals

A

Ecological Fallacy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

After describing an association at the population level, the next step would be to do a an analytic study to see if the association holds true in individuals.

A

Ecologic studies

descriptive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Examines the relationship between outcomes and other variables of interest as they exist in a defined population at one particular time

A

cross sectional study

Observational-Explanatory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Determines prevalence (% of population) not incidence (rate)

A

cross sectional study

Observational-Explanatory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

cannot show causality, does not separate cause/effect

A

cross sectional study

Observational-Explanatory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Does not establish a temporal relationship between risk factors and disease because they are measured at the same time

A

cross sectional study

Observational-Explanatory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

cross sectional study strengths:

Observational-Explanatory

A

Can assess multiple outcomes and exposures simultaneously

Can be completed quickly

Data generated can lead to further studies

Can generate prevalence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

cross sectional study limitations:

Observational-Explanatory

A

No time reference

Only useful for common conditions

Cannot calculate incidence, it is a prevalence study

Results are dependent on the study population

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Studies in which patients who already have a specific condition (cases) are compared with people who do not have the condition (controls).

The researcher looks back to identify factors or exposures that might be associated with the illness

A

Case control study

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

This type of study design may follow a case-series (as a retrospective look at causes).

Tries to capture the cause and effect relationship by comparing frequency of a risk factor among those how are exposed and not-exposed.

A

Case-control studies

an observational study

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Case control strengths

A

GOOD FOR STUDYING RARE OUTCOMES

Can evaluate many exposures

Ideal for initial/explanatory idea

simple/fast

INEXPENSIVE

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Case control limitations

A

single outcome

high risk for bias

high for confounding variables

other factors exist that influence outcome

can’t determine prevalence

temporality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Can’t make causal interpretations

Can’t determine incidence

Can’t calculate Relative risk

A

temporality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

A third variable that has an effect on the outcome but not causal

E.g., alcohol associated with lung cancer but so is smoking

A

confounding variables

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

inappropriate selection of cases or controls

A

selection bias

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Can be selected from a variety of sources: Hospitals, Clinics, Registries. If cases are selected from a single source, and risk factors from that facility may not be _____ to all patients with that disease

A

generalizable

Cases-selection bias

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Ideally, you want ____ to come from the same reference population that cases are derived from. An inappropriate control group can have the opposite effect and obscure an important link between disease and its cause

A

Controls

could be a form of selection bias if control aren’t accurate representations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Occurs when there is a differential recall of exposure between cases and controls

A

Recall bias

main form of information bias

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Occurs when the researcher/observer evaluates cases vs controls differentially

A

Researcher/Observer Bias

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Arises when case subjects who think they have been exposed to responds at a higher rate to controls.

A

Voluntary Reponses Bias

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Process of selecting the controls so they are similar to the cases in certain characteristics, such as age, race, sex, socioeconomic status, and occupation

(control bias)

A

Matching

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

For each case selected for the study, a control is selected who is similar to the case in terms of the specific variable

(matching type, control bias)

A

individual

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Select controls with a certain characteristic that is identical to the proportion of cases with same characteristic

(matching type, control bias)

A

group-based

38
Q

Problems with matching:

A

If you select too many matching characteristics it is difficulty to find an appropriate control

You lose the ability to study a matched variable

39
Q

Employ multiple control groups which offers independent estimates of exposure among different samples of non-cases. Increases strength of the study

A

Multiple controls

40
Q

Other Types of Case-Control Studies

A

Case-crossover

Nested Case-Control

Case-Cohort

41
Q

A variant of a case-control study

Each case becomes their own individual control

Used for transient exposures during a discrete occurrence

A

Case crossover

(air pollution is a typical metric that uses case crossover)

(slide 32 Analytic Study Design Pt. 1)

42
Q

A case control study within a large cohort

Typically seen with large enrollment studies

Controls are a sample of individuals who are at risk for the disease/outcome at the TIME each case of the disease develops

A

Nested Case-Control

slide 30 in Analytic Study Design Pt. 1

43
Q

Same as nested case-control design, expcet controls are randomly chosen from the cohort at the beginning of the study.

A

Case cohort

slide 31 in Analytic Study Design Pt. 1

44
Q

a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience and all remain in the group for a period of time

A

cohort

45
Q

an epidemiologic investigation that follows groups with common characteristics, strongest observational study

A

cohort study

46
Q

identify a group of patients who are already taking a particular treatment or have an exposure, follow them forward over time, and then compare their outcomes with a similar group that has not been affected by the treatment or exposure being studied

(type of cohort study)

A

prospective

best observational for addressing a causal relationship

follow-up is same as cohort study

47
Q

start with a cohort and go back in time to evaluate past exposures to risk factors

(type of cohort study)

A

Retrospective

similar to case-control in that it’s retrospective

48
Q

People with disease are selectively lost to follow-up, and those lost to follow-up differ from those not lost to follow-up

(selection bias in cohort studies)

A

“lost to follow up”

49
Q

Quality and extent of information is different for exposed person than for non-exposed person, a significant bias can be introduced.

(information bias in cohort bias)

A

Information bias

50
Q

Occurs when the observer decides whether the disease has developed in each subject also knows whether that subject was exposed.

(information bias in cohort bias)

A

Observer Bias

leading questions, etc.

51
Q

Cohort strengths

A

may study multiple effects of single exposure

Can identify a temporal relationship between exposure and disease (outcome)

Help confirm cause and effect of disease and the magnitude of the effect

Can measure incidence (rate) of disease

Can calculate Relative Risk
Highest validity of observational study design

52
Q

Cohort studies limitations

A

Expensive and time consuming

Inefficient for studying rare diseases

Lose participants to follow-up

Risk of confounding variables

Retrospective studies require presence of records or recall

53
Q

What point should cohort be identified (or when does the diagnosis begin/how far to “go back”)?

Attempt to make cohort representative of national population?

How long should cohort be followed?

What hypothesis/how many to test?

A

Consideration for cohort study

54
Q

Start with exposure, look for disease

Prospective/Retrospective

Common diseases

High risk for dropout

A

Cohort study

55
Q

start wtih disease

retrospective

rare disease

recall/selection bias

A

case-control study

56
Q

It’s important to read articles and be concerned for “bias that _____”

A

has not been addressed

57
Q

May be done by assigning random numbers or by a program that generates random assignments

Each subject has an equal chance of being assigned to each group (control or intervention)

Randomization strives for comparability of the different treatment groups; however, its not guaranteed

A

Randomized control studies

58
Q

The main purpose of randomization is to prevent any potential biases on the part of the investigators from the influencing the assignment of participants into different treatment groups

A

Randomized control studies

59
Q

*The main purpose of randomization is to prevent _____

A

any potential biases on the part of the investigators

60
Q

For randomized controls studies, controlled implies predefined:

A

Specified hypotheses

Primary and secondary endpoints to address hypotheses

Methods for enrollment and follow up

Eligibility/Exclusionary criteria

Rigorous monitoring

Analysis plans and stopping rules

61
Q

Criteria for determining selection must be specified before the study is begun. Want to ensure that participants actually have the disease of interest. Carefully select sample based on reference ____.

(enrollment in randomized control) studies)

A

population

62
Q

If allocation is conducted properly we don’t have to worry that any subjective biases of the investigator, either overt or covert, may be in introduced into the process of selecting patients.

A

(enrollment in randomized control)

63
Q

Randomization is accomplished by?

A

Computer programs

Envelope system

64
Q

Envelope is only opened after a subject is consented & MEETS ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

A

envelope system

randomization

65
Q

utilized when we are concerned about the comparability of the groups in terms of one or a few important characteristics. This is conducted by stratifying our study population by each variable that we consider important, and then randomize participants to treatment groups within each stratum

A

Stratified Randomization

66
Q

The concealment of group allocation from one or more individuals involved in a clinical research study.

Usually is used in research studies that compare two or more types of interventions.

A

Blinding

Randomized control studies

67
Q

Blinding used to make sure that knowing the type of treatment does not affect:

A

A participant’s response to the treatment
A health care provider’s behavior
The assessment of the treatment effects

68
Q

After being observed for a certain period of time on one therapy; any changes are measured; patients are switched to the other therapy.

Each patient can serve as his or her own control, holding constant the variation between individuals in many characteristics that could potentially affect a comparison of effectiveness of two agents.

Must have a washout period!

A

Planned Crossover

69
Q

Occurs when subjects who are randomized cross-over to the other group.

If we analyze according to treatment that the patient actually receive, we will have broken and therefore lost the benefits of randomization.

Current practice to perform the analysis by intention to treat-according to the original randomized assignment.

If bias occurs typically biases towards the null; typically provides a more conservative estimate

A

Unplanned crossover

70
Q

intention to treat

A

even if case doesn’t follow tx, they perform analysis by the original randomized assignment

71
Q

Allocation is concealed from only one group (researchers or subjects)

A

Single blinding

72
Q

Allocation is concealed from both groups (researchers and subjects)

A

Double blinding

73
Q

Allocation is unknown to the subjects, the individuals who administer the treatment or intervention, and the individuals who assess the outcomes.

A

Triple blinding

74
Q

the Gold-standard

A

Double-blinded Randomized Control Trial

Minimizes the chance for bias if randomization and blinding are done correctly

75
Q 
Large trials (may affect statistical power)
Long term follow-up (possible losses)
Compliance
Expensive
Possible ethical questions	
Primum Non Nocere / ‘First Do No Harm’
A

Randomized control studies limitations

76
Q

Attempted to learn if the drug, surgical procedure, or administrative program works under ideal circumstance

A

Efficacy Trial

77
Q

Within the confines of the study, results appear to be accurate and the interpretation of the investigators I supported

A

Internal Validity

78
Q

Ability to apply results obtained from a study population to a broader population. Also called generalizability

A

External Validity

79
Q

In non-randomized controlled trials, the control group is predetermined (without random assignment) and compared to a control group
Volunteer to join the study OR
Are geographically close to the study site OR
Conveniently turn up (at a clinic, school) while the study is being conducted
Like the studies recruiting with fliers posted in the restroom

A

Non-randomized control studies

80
Q

Enrollment – How was the study population chosen?

Allocation – How were the subjects assigned to their study group?

Follow Up – How long are patients followed for?

Analysis – How was the data collected analyzed?

A

Four major areas of methodological concern for Randomized and Non-randomized control studies

81
Q

What were the inclusion and exclusion criteria?

Is the actual study population representative of the population to which the results will be applied?

Are controls similar to case subjects?

A

enrollment

82
Q 
Was randomization and blinding conducted?
How was it done?
Was it done correctly?
Nonrandom sampling (consecutive or convenience) may not be generalizable and has strong potential for bias
A

Allocation

83
Q

Adherence
How well did the study subjects adhere to the treatment protocol?
Was the intervention too difficult to continue to participate?
Attrition
How many subjects were lost to follow-up?
Why were they lost? Did they quit or die?

A

Follow Up

84
Q

Are the effects of the intervention clearly defined?
Is there a clearly defined end point?
Did they provide an “intent to treat” analysis?
Compares subject outcomes based on their original group assignment even if they dropped out or were non-compliant
Primary reason is to preserve randomization
To what did they compare their data?

A

Analysis

85
Q

Takes the results of a large numbers of primary research studies and combines them into one

Synthesis a great deal of research!

A

Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses

86
Q

The top two levels of the EBM pyramid

A

Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses

87
Q

A “systematic review” is a thorough, comprehensive, and explicit way of interpreting the medical literature
A “meta-analysis” is a statistical approach to combine the data derived from several selected studies

A

the difference between a “systematic review” and a “meta-analysis”

Both are used for the development of Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPGs)

88
Q

A method for combining pertinent study data from several selected studies that are similar enough to justify a quantitative summary to develop a single conclusion that has greater statistical power

A

Meta-analyses

A statistical synthesis of the numerical results of several trials which all addressed the same research question

89
Q

The conclusion is statistically stronger than any single study due to:

A

increased numbers of subjects
greater diversity among subjects
accumulated effects and results

90
Q

Greater statistical power

Confirmatory data analysis

Greater ability to extrapolate to the general population

A

Meta-analyses Strengths

91
Q

Difficult and time consuming to identify appropriate studies
Not all studies provide adequate data for inclusion and analysis
Requires advanced statistical techniques
Heterogeneity of study populations
Age, gender, etc.
Results are not always reproducible by other investigators
Subject publication Bias, Selection Bias, and Misclassification Bias
Can give a false sense of certantiy regarding the magnitude of risk

A

Meta-analyses Limitations

Research Eval (9 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions