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NSF > forelimb > Flashcards

forelimb Flashcards

1
Q

superior, inferior, anterior, posterior

A

superior = dorsal
inferior = ventral
anterior = cranial = cephalic
posterior = caudal

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2
Q

internal vs external

A

internal = deep = away from body surface
external = superficial = towards body surface

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3
Q

proximal + distal

A

toward/away from main mass of body

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4
Q

visceral + parietal

A

related to internal organs
related to body walls

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5
Q

articular vs non-articular bone features

A

articular = form joints w corresponding articular areas other bones
non-articular = serve for attachment muscle, ligament, tendon, fascia

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6
Q

fascia

A

sheet CT covering all organs in bod to provide support

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7
Q

head

of bone

A

round, smooth, v convex articular projecting process
* on end long bones, e.g. humerus, femur

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8
Q

condyle

A

smooth, convex, protruding articular projection at extermities long bones

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9
Q

facet

A

small, smooth articular surface
* flat, concave or convex

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10
Q

epicondyle

A

small, roughened non-articular projection above condyle
* usually attachment site musc + ligaments

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11
Q

process

A

vague name for non-articulating prominence

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12
Q

trochanter

A

specialised term for few blunt projection tuberosities on femur
* non-articulating

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13
Q

tubercle + tuberosity

A

both rounded, roughened non-articular processes
* attachment pts for ligaments/tendons
* sometimes interchangeable but tubercle usually larger/more prominent

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14
Q

crest

A

prominent linear sharp border/ridge
* non-articular prominence

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15
Q

line

A

less prominent faint ridge - a baby crest
* non-articular prominence

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16
Q

spine

A

sharp, slender process/elongated thin shelf-like projection
* non-articular prominence

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17
Q

neck

A

constricted attachment bet articulating head + shaft of bone - non-articular

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18
Q

fovea

A

small non-articular pit-like depression
* provide area for passage bvs/soft tiss

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19
Q

fossa

A

large non-articular basin depression
* provide area for passage bvs/soft tiss

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20
Q

notch

A

non-articular depression - C/U shaped
* area for passage bvs/soft tiss

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21
Q

groove = sulcus

A

furrow-like opening to accomodate soft tiss structures (bvs, nerves, tendons)
* non-articular depression

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22
Q

acetabulum

A

smooth, deep, articular depression

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23
Q

trochlea

A

pulley-like articular structure

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24
Q

cochlea

A

articular surface reciprocal to trochlea

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25
Q

glenoid cavity

A

smooth, shallow articular depression

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26
Q

foramen

A

hole/opening in bone for transmission bvs + nerves

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27
Q

sinus

A

large air-filled cavity w/in bone
* lined w mucous mem
* communicates w exterior (can secrete mucous for IS)

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28
Q

canal

A

foramen that extends through bone to make tube-like passageway
* passage bvs + nerves

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29
Q

fissure

A

narrow, slit-like opening bet adjacent parts bone
* bvs + nerves pass through

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30
Q

flexion + extension

A

decr + incr angle at joint

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31
Q

adduction vs abduction

A

move limb closer to/further from midline

add = closer

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32
Q

depression + elevation

A

refers to head: downward vs upward movement

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33
Q

supination vs pronation

A

supination = turning forearm/palm upwards
pronation = downwards

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34
Q

inversion + eversion

A

rotation plantar (sole) aspect internally/externally

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35
Q

external/internal rotation

A

rotate bone externally/internally around longitudinal axis

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36
Q

protraction + retraction

A

protraction = moving limb forwards
retraction = moving limb backwards/fixing limb + moving trunk forward relative

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37
Q

stride

+ how used incr speed

A

1 cycle limb movement at particular gait
* incr by incr stride length (by incr limb length anatomically or physiologically - more extension/flexion) or stride rate (decr limb mass, esp distally)
* length + rate antagonistic - incr 1 = other decr

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38
Q

how incr stride rate

A
  • conc musculature proximally
  • decr no. digits
  • elongate distal, less massive segments limb (for incr stride length, as opposed proximal)
  • physiologically: flex limb in protraction - more flexion the faster you go
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39
Q

role of forelimb + so anatomical features

A
  • carry more static weight
  • maximise gait efficiency by minimising up/down E expenditure = ligaments absorb KE of downward movement + store it as potentially E when stretched then rebound + E -> upward KE = thorax elevated w minimal musc movement
  • shorter + straighter than hindlimb
  • connected to trunk just by musc + ligament
  • broader rounder hoof (horse)

forelimbs = thoracic limbs

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40
Q

role + general anatomical features hindlimb

A

motors of locomotion = drive trunk forward + propel body up
* longer + more angular
* osseus articulation to axial skeleton
* hip, stifle + hock can all extend at once
* narrower pointier hoof (horse)

hindlimbs = pelvic limbs

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41
Q

overarching limb diffs carnivores + herbivores

A

carnivores = limbs for running + manipulation (prey, fighting) so specialisation limited
* unguis not used locomotion so available as tool/weapon
* smaller intestinal mass = flexible trunk + spine = limbs can swing more = incr stride length = faster
* flexed + extended suspension phases (when lose contact w ground)

horses need continual grazing = ligament structures to allow prolonged standing w lil expenditure musc E
* just flexed suspension phase

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42
Q

locomotor sys

A

muscoskeletal sys that allows wide range animal movement
* bones (osteology) - rigid support
* joints (arthrology) - allow movement be bones
* musc (myology) - prods movement bet bones

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43
Q

cursorial meaning

A

animal w ability run fast (cheetah) or keep constant speed long distance

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44
Q

cursorial adaptations locomotor sys

A
  1. reduced pectoral skeleton - no/vestigial clavicle = no skeletal attachment bet forelimb + trunk = just muscular joint = free more caudal/cranial movement = incr stride length
  2. chest cavity compressed laterally (-> deep + narrow) = unrestricted movement limbs back + forth = incr stride length
  3. elongation at proximal end limb - scapula lies laterally = incr stride length
  4. elongation at distal end limb - long metacarpals + walk on toes/hooves = incr stride length
  5. brachium v muscular + relatively short = limb mass proximal = incr stride rate
  6. conversion musc -> ligament = decr mass + reliance on passive mechanics
  7. reduction digits in manus - stability over dexterity
  8. radius more dominant bone in antebrachium - stability over rotation for manipulation

incr stride length = run faster

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45
Q

digitigrade, unguligrade, plantigrade

A

digitigrade = ground contact made w digits w heel always up
unguligrade = ground contact made w hoof w carpus always raised
plantigrade = walking w heel (plantar side foot) on ground

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46
Q

synsarcosis

A

purely muscular joining bet parts skeleton

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47
Q

shoulder joint fancy name

A

omothoracic junction

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48
Q

gait

A

sequence limb movements

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49
Q

walk

as a gait

A

4 beat gait:
each limb moves forward individually + hits ground sep
sequential

slowest

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50
Q

trot

as a gait

A

diagonal gait = 2 beat gait
2 limbs hit ground simultaneously

2nd slowest

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51
Q

canter

as a gait

A

3 beat w one period suspension
L lead: RH, LH + RF, LF
R lead: LH, RH + LF, RF

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52
Q

gallop

as a gait

A

4 beat gait
L lead: RH, LH, RF, LF
R lead: LH, RH, LF, RF

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53
Q

division bod into 2 skeletons

A

axial = vertebral column, skull + ribcage
appendicular = limbs

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54
Q

bone types

A
  1. flat - large SA for musc attachment + protect underlying structures
  2. long - support bodyweight + allow movement
  3. short - large range movement (small but working together) + anti-concussive (== shock absorbing)
  4. sesamoid embedded in tendons in joints
    * allow wide range movement
    * redirect forces
    * reduce friction to prevent damage

some others irregular for function, e.g. vertebrae

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55
Q

smooth vs rough SAs of bones

A

smooth = passage structures/tendons + articular surfaces
rough = musc attachment

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56
Q

features of articular surfaces

A
  • hyaline cartilage covering if weight-bearing surface
  • resistant deformation
  • no bvs or nerves
  • no periosteum
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57
Q

periosteum is + why

A

covers outer surface bone (except articular surfaces) + conts bvs/nerves
* important for fracture healing
* enters medullary cavity via nutrient foramen

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58
Q

how does bone form from embryo v simple

A

embryonic mesenchymal cells -> cartilagenous matrix
then mesenchymal -> osteoblasts
cartilage calcifies

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59
Q

how many ossification centres diff bones

A

short + sesamoid = 1 per bone
flat + long = >1
attachment sites for important may have more than one

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60
Q

how to identify physis/growth plate radiograph

A

cartilage bet bones appears black

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61
Q

how identify young vs old

A

young = open physes for incr bone length
mature = closed = physeal scars

diff ones close diff times depending on contrib to length = estimate age

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62
Q

most likely pts damage on bones animals diff ages

A

adults = shaft weakest pt so fractures
young = growth plate weakest - damage/separation (can cause premature closure)

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63
Q

tendon vs ligament

A

tendon = musc-bone
ligament = bone-bone

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64
Q

general structure sk musc

A

individual musc fibres arranged parallel lines collected in bundles covered by fibrous tiss (= deep fascia)
* attached rigid structures, usually bone

origin usually proximal
insertion usually distal

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65
Q

aponeurosis

A

thin flat sheet CT connect musc to bone when no space for tendon to attach

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66
Q

diff ways sk musc attaches to bone

A
  1. directly to bone on rough surface
  2. via tendon = condensation deep fascia into cords w smaller area attachment (= less bulky across joints)
  3. via aponeurosis if limited access to bone = condensation deep fascia into sheets (fibrous) - long attachment area

superficial fascia = subcut loose CT attaching skin-musc

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67
Q

overall musc action w part names

A

belly contracts + shortens = pts attachment drawn closer together
* pivots at joint to decr/incr angle of joint
* antagonistic pairs have opposite action, i.e. flexor + extensor of any given joint

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68
Q

description of sides of joint

A

flexor + extensor aspects where angle decr/incr

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69
Q

intrinsic vs extrinsic sk musc

A

INTRINSIC = origin + insertion w/in appendicular skeleton, moving limb joints - flexion + extension

EXTRINSIC = origin on axial, insertion on appendicular, movement limb relative to trunk - protraction/retraction

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70
Q

pivotal point

= PP

A

midway down scapula - pt around which it rotates + glides over thorax

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71
Q

regions of forelimb

A
  1. omo (shoulder) - scapula (+ clavicle in cats)
  2. brachium - humerus
  3. antebrachium - radius + ulna
  4. carpus - cluster small carpal bones
  5. manus - metacarpal bones
  6. digit - phalanges
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72
Q

structure scapula

lateral + medial - dog (reference pt)

A
medial pretty much flat (no sticky outy bits)
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73
Q

glenoid cavity

A

smooth concave articular surface for attachment humerus in shoulder joint

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74
Q

superaglenoid tubercle

A

attachment biceps brachii musc

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75
Q

serrated face on proximal medial aspect scapula

A

where serratus ventralis attaches

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76
Q

where does subscapularis musc originate

A

lower 2/3 subscapular fossa

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77
Q

how is cat scapula diff to dog

A
  1. more rounded cranial angle
  2. suprahamate process = extra extension of spine to allow attachment musc
  3. vestigial clavicle
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78
Q

centres of ossification scapula

A
  1. body
  2. supraglenoid tubercle

= growth plates visible as line black on readiograph if young

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79
Q

how to find scapula

A

can palpate:
* dorsal border
* cranial border
* cranial angle
* spine
* acromion

caudal border beneath musc so difficult

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80
Q

extrinsic muscs of forearm

A
  1. brachiocephalic
  2. omotransversarius
  3. latissimus dorsi
  4. serratus ventralis
  5. trapezius
  6. rhomboideus
  7. pectoral
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81
Q

brachiocephalic musc

A

origin: cervico-thoracic fascia that sits on top whole neck region
insertion: humerus (aponeurosis)

protractor - acts across shoulder (also extensor)

3 parts:
1. Cleidocepahlicus = Cleidocervicalis (caudal) + Cleidomastoideus (cranial) - cervical + accessory nerves
3. Cleidobrachialis - distal - axillary nerve

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82
Q

omotransversarius

A

origin: transverse processes of 1st vertebra C1)
insertion: acromion process

protractor (+ flexes neck laterally)
innervated by accessory nerve

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83
Q

latissimus dorsi musc

A

origin: thoracolumbar fascia
insertion: humerus (aponeurosis) on teres major tuberosity

retractor - propulsion, + shoulder joint flexor

innervated by thoracodorsal nerve

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84
Q

serratus ventralis musc

A

origin: thoracic wall (ribs) + cervical vertebrae (neck)
insertion: proximal scapula - medial aspect, proximal to PP (facies serrata)

cranial part = RETRACTOR
caudal part = PROTRACTOR
bc inserts on proximal scapula
* cranial pulls dorsal side cranial so ventral side -> caudal = limb backward
* caudal pulls dorsal side caudal = ventral end cranial = limb forward

INNERVATED cervical nerves + long thoracic nerve

no effect on shoulder, also supports limb + involved inspiration

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85
Q

where would abductor + adductor muscs insert on scapula

A

abductors located proximal to PP + limb
adductors located distal to PP + medial to limb

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86
Q

Trapezius musc

A

origin: cervicothoracic fascia
insertion: proximal scapular spine

only abduction (no effect shoulder)
cranial + caudal part
innervation = accessory nerve

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87
Q

rhomboideus muscle

A

origin: cervicothoracic fascia
insertion: dorsal border scapula
abductor
innervated thoracic + cervical nerves

lies deep to trapezius

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88
Q

pectoral muscles

A

origin: sternum
insertion: humerus
2 heads: deep + superficial
adductor

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89
Q

superficial pectoral

A

cranial end sturnum -> major tubercle of humerus
adductor
inn: cranial pectoral nerve

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90
Q

deep pectoral musc

A

originates entire length sternum -> insert minor tubercle humerus
retractor AND adductor
inn: caudal pectoral nerve

larger than superficial pectoral

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91
Q

intrinsic muscs

A

origin + insertion w/in appendicular skeleton + no effect on limb relative to trunk
* only flexion + extension to move joints w/in limb

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92
Q

humerus structure proximal end

lateral + medial views

A
  • head articulates w glenoid cavity of scapula at shoulder joint
  • intertubercular groove = smooth where tendon of origin biceps brachii musc passes

long bone

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93
Q

distal end humerus structure

A
  • medial epicondyle larger than lateral - on either side condyle
  • condyle = articular surface for elbow joint, split:
    1. trochlea = larger w central depression + articulates w radius + ulna
    2. capitulum = lateral + articulates w radius
  • nothing through foramen + may not be in short-legged dogs
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94
Q

how is humerus cat different to dog

A
  1. no supratrochlear foramen
  2. supracondyloid foramen thru which pass brachial artery + median nerve

supracondyloid foramen vulnerable fractures

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95
Q

centres ossification humerus

A
  1. proximal epiphyses
  2. body
  3. medial epicondyle
  4. medial half condyle
  5. lateral half condyle
lateral + caudal views
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96
Q

how is humerus situated

A
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97
Q

palpable landmarks humerus

A
  1. greater tubercle
  2. lateral epicondyle
  3. medial epicondyle
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98
Q

clinical considerations for humerus

A
  1. supratrochlear foramen = weak pt
  2. medial 1/2 condyle larger than lateral 1/2 so lateral more common fracture
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99
Q

somites in embryo giving rise sk musc

A

segmental axial structures
1. blocks musc tiss develop in pairs alongside spinal cord
2. grp combine form each forelimb
3. move + drag nerves w
4. so nerve supply reflects origin musc tiss

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100
Q

spinal nerves -> forelimb

A
  1. leave spinal cord thru intervertebral foramen
  2. paired L + R
  3. branches (dorsal supply dorsal structures)
  4. ventral branches from C6, C7, C8, T1, T2 form brachial plexus in axillary region
  5. emerging nerves supply forelimb

nerve numbered as vertebra it is just cranial to, e.g. C6 = just cranial to cervical vertebra 6 (-> thoracic -> lumbar)

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101
Q

nerves supplying forelimb

A
  • ulnar
  • radial
  • median
  • axillary
  • musculocutaneous
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102
Q

proprioception

A

location of limb in space

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103
Q

mxed nerves

A

consist motor + sensory fibres = transmit messages both directions at once
* spinal reflexes - rapid involuntary responses mediated by spinal cord w/o input from brain

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104
Q

which of forelimb extrinsic muscs does brachial plexus supply

A
  1. latissimus dorsi
  2. serratus ventralis
  3. pectorals

not brachiocephalicus, trapezius, rhomboideus

supplies all intrinsic muscs of forelimb

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105
Q

types joint

A
  1. fibrous - v lil movement, e.g. skull sutures + syndesmosis (radius + ulna)
  2. cartilagenous - slightly more movement but lil, e.g. pelvic symphysis
  3. synovial
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106
Q

synovial joint

A

for large range motion bet bones = most limb joints w:
1. hyaline cartilage covering articular surfaces reduce friction + make flexible - avascular + no nerves
2. viscous synovial fluid to nourish cartilage (bc no bvs) + lubricate
3. synovial mem to prod fluid + physical barrier to contain it
4. joint capsule = fibrous layer incorping mem, attaching around osteochondral junction

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107
Q

why does hyaline cartilage in synovial joint have no nerve supply

A

would be painful when press applied (always)

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108
Q

structure + role ligaments

A

fibrous mat condenses to form = dense fibrous CT
* medial + lateral collateral ligaments support joint + hold bones together + restrict movement bet bones

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109
Q

flexion vs extension in terms weight bearing

A

flexion = non weight-bearing position, extension associated w weight bearing

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110
Q

components shoulder joint

A

concave glenoid cavity scapula + convex head humerus -> ball + socket joint
* palpable acromion process + greater tubercle
* glenohumeral ligaments v weak + poorly developed

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111
Q

bicipital bursa

A

extension joint capsule into intertubercular groove
* joint capsule extends round tendon of origin Biceps brachii - protects
* held in place by transverse ligament

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112
Q

arthrogram

A

radiograph where contrast agent was injected into joint

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113
Q

Supraspinatus musc

A

origin: supraspinous fossa
insertion: greater tubercle humerus
function: lateral support joint + extensor
innervation: suprascapular nerve

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114
Q

infraspinatus musc

A

origin: infraspinous fossa
insertion: distal to greater tubercle
function: lateral support joint + abductor + both flex + extend shoulder depending limb position
nerve supply: suprascapular nerve - motor fibres only

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115
Q

subscapularis musc

A

origin: subscapular fossa
insertion: lesser tubercle humerus
function: medial support shoulder joint, extensor + adductor
nerve supply: subscapular nerve - motor fibres only

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116
Q

biceps brachii musc

A

origin: supraglenoid tubercle
insertion: proximal radial tuberosity + ulna tuberosity (2 tendons) = on proximal medial aspects of bones
function: shoulder joint extensor, elbow flexor
nerve supply: musculocutaneous nerve - motor only

1 head in dog, starts w long tendon, runs craniomedially down brachium

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117
Q

Teres Major

A

origin: caudal border scapula
insertion: medial humerus (Teres major tuberosity)
function: shoulder joint flexor
nerve supply: axillary nerve - motor + sensory fibres

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118
Q

where do shoulder flexors + extensors cross joint

A

extensors cross cranial to joint
flexors cross caudal

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119
Q

Teres Minor

A

origin: distal1/3 caudal edge scapula
insertion: tuberosity teres minor in middle lateral humerus (proximal to deltoid tuberosity
function: shoulder joint flexor
crosses over flexor side joint
innervation: axillary nerve

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120
Q

deltoideus musc

A

2 heads:
origins: scapular spine (1) + acromion process (2)
insertion: lateral aspect humerus (deltoid tuberosity)
function: shoulder joint flexor
nerve supply: axillary nerve - mixed
sits on top of infraspinatus musc (wide aponeurosis)

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121
Q

triceps musc

from shoulder joint perspective

A

4 heads, only ‘long head’ relates shoulder joint
origin: caudal border scapula
insertion: olecranon of ulna (common tendon)
function: shoulder joint flexor + elbow extensor
nerve supply: radial nerve - motor + sensory fibres

122
Q

radius + ulna respective roles

A

paired long bones that cross each other obliquely
* ulna = longer, acts as lever
* radius = shorter, main weight bearing

123
Q

radius structure

A

styloid process = attachment medial collateral ligament of carpus

124
Q

structure ulna

A

styloid process = attachment lateral collateral ligament of carpus

125
Q

articulation of radius + ulna

A

PROXIMAL: head of radius -> radial notch on ulna
* held by annular ligament running lateral to medial coronoid process
* rotation poss

DISTAL: fibrous joint, lil rotation poss
* interosseus ligament
* interosseous space bet bodies

126
Q

evolution in relation radius + ulna

A
  1. toes rotated cranially
  2. elbows rotated caudally

== ulna + rad rotate around each other
proximal = ulna most medial
distal = ulna most lateral

127
Q

what can you palpate radius + ulna

A

ULNA:
* olecranon process
* lateral styloid process

RADIUS:
medial styloid process

128
Q

how do cat radius + ulna differ

A
  • square olecranon
  • radius + ulna similar diameter

elbow joint loads rotation climb + stuff when dogs rotation limited

129
Q

centres ossification radius

A
  1. proximal epiphyses
  2. body
  3. distal epiphyses
130
Q

ulna centres ossification

A
  1. olecranon process
  2. anconeal process
  3. body
  4. distal epiphyses (cone shape)
131
Q

predilection sites osteosarcoma

A

= primary bone tumour
* proximal humerus
* distal ulna
* distal radius

132
Q

articulation in elbow joint

A
  1. humerus trochlea w trochlear notch ulna + fovea capitis radius
  2. capitulum humerus w fovea capitis radius
  3. olecranon fossa humerus w anconeal process ulna

synovial joint w extensive capsule

133
Q

how is elbow joint made stable

A
  • collateral ligaments
  • anconeal process -> ulnar/olecranon fossa

omly flexion/extension + rotation

134
Q

triceps musc

from elbow joint perspective

A

4 heads, all insert on olecranon process
1. long head o = caudal border scapula
2. lateral head o = lateral aspect humerus
3. medial head o = medial aspect humerus
4. accessory head o = proximal caudal humerus

function = elbow extensors
nerve supply = radial nerve

135
Q

visualising triceps heads

A

long and lateral visible lateral view
accessory underneath
medial visible from medial view

136
Q

elbow extensors vs flexors

A

extensors are caudal to joint
flexors are cranial to joint

137
Q

brachialis musc

A

origin: caudal humerus
insertion: proximal ulna (ulnar tuberosity)
follows musculospiral/brachial groove
function: elbow flexor
nerve supply: musculocutaneous nerve

138
Q

coracobrachialis musc

A

coracoid process of scapula -> minor tubercle humerus
shoulder extensor + adductor + rotates joint outwards
innerv: musculocutaneous

capsular musc of shoulder

139
Q

anconeus musc

A

distal 1/3 caudal humerus -> olecranon
elbow extensor
innerv: radial nerve

capsular musc of elbow

140
Q

tensor fascia antebrachii

A

origin: latissimus dorsi
insertion: olecranon
broad, flat musc = main tensor of antebrachial fascia
innerv: radial nerve

141
Q

elbow joint rotator muscles

A
  1. supinator: lateral epicondyle -> proximal radius (radial nerve)
  2. pronator teres: medial epicondyle -> radius, on top (median nerve)
142
Q

considerations for surgery

accessing humerus

A

dissect bet muscles, don’t cut them = less damage = faster healing
* proximal: bet brachiocephalicus + deltoideus
* midshaft: bet brachiocephalicus + brachialis
* distal: bet brachialis + triceps

143
Q

where do bvs run + why

A

limb naturally extended so bvs cross flexor aspects joints to avoid stretching

also nerves - vein, artery + nerve run together = NV bundle

144
Q

main arterial supply whole forelimb

A

1 major vessel running down limb, changing name according region (branches off loads ofc)
1. subclavian 1st rib -> axilla
2. axillary through axilla
3. brachial down brachium
then 3 main branches:
* median down medial aspect antebrachium
* radial terminates superficial palmar arch
* superficial brachial down cranial aspect antebrachium

145
Q

palmar blood supply

A
  1. median artery -> superficial palmar arch -> palmar common digital arteries
  2. caudal interosseus artery -> deep palmar arch -> palmar common digital arteries
146
Q

dorsal blood supply

A

superficial brachial artery -> dorsal common digital arteries + dorsal digital artery

147
Q

what happens to blood supply at digits

A

supplies fuse then branch again -> 4 vessels per digit
* palmar supply extensive + most important
* axial palmar supply most important (palmar on side closest trunk)

148
Q

venous supply forelimb

A
  • deep sys follows arterial supply (VAN) - same names + all
  • superficial sys = cephalic vein -> jugular vein/vena cava

radial nerve alongside cephalic vein for cutaneous sensation - injection

149
Q

carpal bones

A

proximal row, PR w:
1. radial/intermediate bone (fused) (RCB)
2. ulnar carpal bone (UCB)
3. accessory carpal bone (ACB)

distal row, DR w 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th carpal bones

all short bones

150
Q

carpus centres ossification

A

each bone single centre ossification except ACB = 2, + fused R/ICB = 2

151
Q

carpal joints

A
  1. antebrachio-carpal joint bet antebrachium + carpus
  2. middle carpal joint bet PR + DR
  3. carpo-metacarpal joint bet DR + metacarpal bones
152
Q

movement carpal joints

A

large range flexion
* most movement antebrachio-carpal joint
* least in carpo-metacarpal joint
* some bet carpal bones

ACB = insertion major carpal flexor musc
- counteraction by palmar ligament

standing = extension = weight-bearing position

153
Q

extent carpal synovial joint

A

joint capsule extends proximally bet radius + ulna + distally bet metacarpal bones

poor comms bet compartments

154
Q

collateral ligaments carpal joint

A

lateral = lateral styloid process ulna -> 5th metacarpal bone
medial = medial styloid process radius -> 2nd metacarpal

styloid processes vulnerable (esp lateral) so also intracarpal ligaments

155
Q

retinaculum

A

deep fascia sleeve (fibrous CT) enclosing carpal region to support joint from lateral aspect ACB -> medial aspect carpus

at palmar + dorsal surface

156
Q

carpal canal

A

tunnel gap bet
* palmar ligament (dorsal)
* ACB (lateral)
* palmar retinaculum (palmar)

deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), bvs + nerves pass thru
* superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) outside in dogs

bones then palmar lig then tendon etc then retinaculum wrapped all the way round
157
Q

palmar ligament

A

fibrocartilagenous reinforcement carpal joint capsule
* = friction-free surface for passage tendons
* passive maintenance joint extension
* prevents collapse into hyperextension

dorsal boundary carpal canal

158
Q

what can you palpate carpal joint

A
  • ACB
  • joint spaces (in flexion)
  • medial styloid process radius
  • lateral styloid process ulna
159
Q

components of manus

A
  1. 5 metacarpal bones (MC), numbered medial -> lateral
  2. sesamoid bones
  3. then digits w proximal (PP, P1), middle (MP, P2) + distal phalanx (DP, P3) (no middle on 1) - long bones

digitigrade = 4 weight bearing - no.1 vestigial

dorsal view
160
Q

1st digit

A

= dew claw on medial aspect
* vestigial + non weight bearing
* commonly removed in puppies

161
Q

centres ossification in manus

A

MC: body + proximal end
PP: body + proximal end
MP: body + proximal end
DP: body

162
Q

DP structure

A

ungual crest v vascular - root of claw
* claw held in place bt CT bet it + bone

debate if long bone

163
Q

joints w/in manus

A
  1. metacarpo-phalangeal (MCP)
  2. proximal interphalangeal (PIP)
  3. distal interphalangeal (DIP)

all synovial w extension + flexion

164
Q

stability joints in manus

A
  1. collateral ligaments
  2. sagittal ridge/groove over MCP on palmar side prevent hyperextension w spring-like mech
165
Q

MCP joint

A
  • 2 proximal sesamoids on palmar aspect either side sagittal ridge protect flexor tendons
  • 1 dorsal sesamoid protect extensor tendons
  • supported metacarpal foot pad
  • interosseus musc + tendon

resting = extended

lateral view
166
Q

attachments DIP

A

forces balanced to maintain claw tip above horizontal = problem if DDFT severed bc toe too far up = ‘stubbed toe’

167
Q

differences in cat claws

A

v strong dorsal elastic ligament = DIP hyperextended = claw in sheath, not visible
* remains sharp for hunting, climbing

manual press on digital pad = DDFT flexes joint = exposed

168
Q

overall on muscs affecting joints carpus + manus

A

belly in antebrachium then tendon of insertion distal to carpus

169
Q

extensors distal limb general facts

A

origin: lateral epicondyle humerus
run over dorsal aspect carpus
controlled radial nerve - ALL so damage = no extension at all

170
Q

flexors distal limb general facts

A

origin: medial epicondyle
run over palmar aspect carpus
median nerve innervates superficial, + ulnar nerve deeper musc

171
Q

carpus extensors

A
  • extensor carpi radialis
  • abductor pollicus longus (= extensor carpi obliquus)
  • extensor carpi ulnaris (ulnaris lateralis in ungulates)
  • common digital extensor
  • lateral digital extensor
172
Q

carpus flexors

A
  • flexor carpi ulnaris (2 heads)
  • flexor carpi radialis
  • superficial digital flexor
  • deep digital flexor (3 heads)
173
Q

extensor carpi radialis musc

A

origin: lateral epicondyle humerus
inserts on metacarpal bones
carpus extensor, elbow flexor
innerv = radial nerve

174
Q

abductor pollicus longus musc

A

== extensor carpi obliquus
inserts on proximal end metacarpal 2
* crosses at level of carpus
* sesamoid in tendon of insertion

carpus extensor

175
Q

extensor carpi ulnaris musc

A

**= ulnaris lateralis **
origin: lateral epicondyle humerus
inserts on proximal end 5th metacarpal + ACB
flexion/extension carpus depending on limb position
innerv: radial

176
Q

common digital extensor musc

A

origin: lateral epicondyle humerus
inserts on all digits - DP on extensor process
extends: carpus + digits II -> V
innerv: radial

177
Q

lateral digital extensor musc

A

origin: lateral epicondyle humerus
inserts on DP extensor process digits II, IV + V
digits II, IV + V extensor
innerv: radial

178
Q

flexor carpi ulnaris musc

A

origin olecranon asw as epicondyle humerus (2 heads)
insertion ACB
carpus flexor
innerv: ulnar nerve

ulnar head = weaker

179
Q

flexor carpi radialis musc

A

origin: medial epicondyle
inserts on palmar aspect metacarpal II + III
innerv: median

carpus flexor

180
Q

superficial digital flexor musc

A

origin: medial epicondyle of humerus
inserts on middle phalanx all digits (not I) - palmar proximal
flexor of carpus + digits II, III, IV + V
innerv: median

181
Q

deep digital flexor musc

A

3 heads: origin medial epicondyle (strongest) + radial (medial border, weakest) + ulnar (caudal border) heads
inserts on DP all digits (not I) - palmar process
flexor of carpus + digits (not I)
innerv: median nerve

3 heads unite -> strong tendon, thru carpal canal -> splits, insert DPs

182
Q

pronator quadratus musc

A

arises on ulna, inserts on radius, filling space bet 2
rotates paw inwards
innerv: median

183
Q

interossei muscs

A
  • 4 in total from palmar aspect metacarpals II, III, IV + V
  • distally each divides into 2 short tendons that attach proximal end P1
  • each tendon has sesamoid bone embedded in it

flexion metacarpophalangeal joints
innerv: ulnar nerve

184
Q

supinator musc

A

lies lateral on cranial surface elbow
origin: lateral collateral ligament + lateral epicondyle humerus
inerts: cranial surface radius
function: rotate paw so palmar surface medial-facing (supination)
innerv: radial

185
Q

abductor digiti longus musc

= extensor carpi obliquus in domestics, abductor pollicis longus -horses

A

origin: craniolateral surface of ulna
inserts: medial proximal metacarpal I/II - small sesamoid near point of insertion
extends carpus + abducts 1st digit
innerv: radial

186
Q

pronator teres musc

A

medial epicondyle of humerus -> cranial radius = lies medially on cranial surface of elbow
rotates paw so palmar surface in contact w ground
innerv: median

187
Q

how do radius + ulna articulate w carpus

A

radius w R/UCB
ulna w UCB + ACB

188
Q

footpads where + names

A
  • carpal/stopper pad protects ACB
  • metacarpal pad over MCP joint
  • 4 digital pads over DIP joints
189
Q

functions footpads

A
  • resistance trauma/wear + tear
  • traction - prevent slipping
  • anti-concussive = shock absorption
  • protect deep structures (sesamoid bones)
  • support digit to allow weight bearing
190
Q

integumentary sys

A
191
Q

epidermis facts

A

cells constantly proded germinative layer + move outwards as age
* dead at surface + slough
* constant replacement

avascular + no nerve supply
stratified squamous keratinised epithelium

192
Q

dermis

A

vascular CT layer w nerve supply
* supports germinative layer epidermis w active production skin cells

193
Q

how is epidermis of footpad modified

A
  • incr skin thickness
  • incr cell turnover = active germinative layer
  • deposition lots keratin as hard proteinaceous mat
  • rough surface = grip
  • lots sweat glands for heat loss (= bandaging tricky)
  • hairless

=== trauma resistance

194
Q

components footpad

A

digital cushion = fibro-elastic tiss w fat + loads bvs (= v vascular tiss)
* shock absorption

195
Q

claw structure

A
  • no superficial fascia
  • dermis fused periosteum CT of ungual process
  • epidermis v keratinised -> horn
  • germination active 2 places only
  • stratum tectorum = oily waterproof surface layer nourishing + preventing brittle proded by skin in ungual recesses
196
Q

germinative areas of claw

A
  1. recess bet claw + skin -> horn over dorsal + lateral surfaces ungual process (horse-show shape in TS)
  2. palmar surface ungual process to grow horn over it
197
Q

how is claw held in place

A

common digital extensor tendon + dorsal elastic ligament (balanced by deep digital flexor tendon)
* so tip just touches ground

198
Q

how does claw grow

A

circular fashion + can grow into pad but wears naturally unless:
* not walking
* walking on soft ground
* dew claw
* DDFT damage -> ‘stubbed toe’

horn = epidermis = insensitive = can cut + wear down (dermis sensitive)

199
Q

lymph nodes role

A

filters where lymph vessels converge
* prevent contaminants reaching systemic circulation, removing invading orgs like bac
* contain defence cells

200
Q

which muscles/nerves does brachial plexus supply

A

extrinsic: pectoral, latissimus dorsi, serratus ventralis

all intrinsic forelimb muscs:
* subscapular nerve -> subscapularis
* suprascapular nerve -> supraspinatus + infraspinatus
* musculocutaneous nerve -> BBC
* axillary nerve -> all on antebrachial (= shoulder flexors)
* radial nerve -> extensors of elbow, carpus, digits
* median + ulnar nerves -> flexors carpus + digits

BBC = biceps brachii, brachialis, coracobrachialis

201
Q

subscapular nerve

A
  • motor only (no cutaneous sensation)
  • only innervates subscapularis musc = medial shoulder support
202
Q

suprascapular nerve

A

motor only (no cutaneous sensation)
-> supraspinatus + infraspinatus = lateral shoulder support

203
Q

musculocutaneous nerve

A

cutaneous sensation:
* cranial + medial aspect elbow
* medial aspect antebrachium

motor = elbow flexors (BBC):
* brachialis
* biceps brachii
* coracobrachialis

damage = no compensation = no elbow flexion

204
Q

axillary nerve

A

sensory fibres to:
lateral aspect shoulder + brachium

motor = shoulder flexors:
* deltoideus
* teres major

damage = compensation by latissimus dorsi + long head triceps

205
Q

median + ulnar nerve

A

cutaneous sensation:
* caudal + palmar aspect limb
* dorsal aspect 5th digit

motor = carpal + digital flexors:
* flexor carpi ulnaris
* flexor carpi radialis
* superficial digital flexor
* deep digital flexor

damage = no compensation = no flexion distal limb

206
Q

radial nerve

A

sensory fibres:
* dorsal + cranial aspect limb
* EXCEPT dorsal 5th digit

motor = extensors elbow (triceps) + extensors carpus + digits:
* extensor carpi radialis
* extensor carpi ulnaris/ulnaris lateralis
* common digital extensor
* lateral digital extensor

proximal damage = no elbow or carpus, distal = elbow ye carpus/digits no

207
Q

route of radial nerve

A
  1. medial
  2. caudal to shoulder
  3. thru triceps
  4. follows musculospiral groove + brachialis musc
    branch -> lateral epicondyle supplies distal limb extenders
    branch -> cranial/dorsal aspect limb alongside cephalic vein for cutaneous

humeral fracture most common cause damage

208
Q

causes brachial plexus damage

A
  • tear bc stretched - head + neck one way, limb other
  • high impact collision
  • tumours

poss regen

209
Q

effect on limb of brachial plexus damage

A
  • can protract/abduct
  • can’t retract/adduct
  • can’t extend/flex
  • can’t weight bear
  • no cutaneous sensation on limb/lateral thorax -> 3rd intercostal space

quite protected by scapula tho

210
Q

which cutaneous areas are innervated by which nerves

A
211
Q

Origin vs insertion of musc

A

origin end music usually fixed in place - attachment site static during contraction
insertion attachment site moves as musc contracts

insertion usually distal end, origin proximal

212
Q

Vein setup

A

2 sets:
1. Deep - follow path of arteries
2. Superficial - run just under skin, mainly involved thermoregulation

213
Q

proximal veins w paths

A
  1. cephalic - up cranial aspect then proximally runs deep to brachiocephalicus + joins jugular
  2. axillobrachial runs bet cephalic + axillary veins at shoulder
  3. omobrachial from axillobrachial -> cephalic
214
Q

pronator quadratus

A

fills interosseus space bet radius + ulna
* pronator of limb

215
Q

describe artery path

A
  1. right brachial enters antebrachium, gives off common interosseus
  2. rb continues as median into manus
  3. interosseus gives 3 branches: ulnar, cranial interosseus + caudal interosseus

caudal interosseus runs in interosseus space bet ulna + radius = protected blood source to manus

216
Q

general differences horse forelimb

A
  • unguligrade - weight-bearing DP 3rd digit
  • same bones, joints, muscs
  • manus expanded - metacarpal bones long to incr limb length = incr stride length
  • 2nd + 4th metacarpals v reduced
217
Q

extra vestigial structures horse

A
  1. chestnut = vestigial toe over 1st metacarpal bone
  2. ergot = keratinised horny lump on palmar aspect MCP joint = vestigial metacarpal pad
    * hidden by ‘feathers’ = long hairs
218
Q

how is humerus different in horses

+ so biceps brachii

A

has intermediate tubercle in the middle of intertubercular groove = 2 intertubercular grooves
* = tendon biceps brachii split in 2
* = bicipital bursa sep from shoulder joint capsule

219
Q

lacertus fibrosis

A

fibrous CT extension over biceps + extensor carpi radialis
* inserts proximal MC3
* if shoulder extended then carpus extended too = stay apparatus

in horse

220
Q

how are radius + ulna diff in horse

+ triceps

A
  • fused = no rotation, no annular ligament
  • ulna v reduced (no distal) - radius = main weight-bearing bone

triceps only 3 heads - no accessory

221
Q

bursa of elbow joint

A

fluid filled cushions to protect tendons
1. tricipital bet triceps tendon + olecranon process - excess fluid = pain, lameness
2. subcut bet skin + tendon of tricep insertion - excess = swelling but not so painful

222
Q

how is carpus diff in horses

A

all carpal bones present except 1st (may be vestigial but tiny) - RCB + ICB sepped
* 3rd carpal bone largest

most movement at antebrachio-carpal joint
least at carpometacarpal joint

both DDFT + SDFT in carpal canal

still 7 bones
223
Q

tendon sheaths in carpus horse

A

protects tendon in confined spaces w transparent CT sheath
1. dorsal aspect = around extensor tendons
2. palmar aspect = around DDFT + SDFT

224
Q

thoroughpin

A

inflammation of carpal canal bc incr press = bulges = ‘thoroughpin’

in horse

225
Q

how are metacarpal bones horses different

A

3rd = ‘cannon’ bone - weight bearing
* distal articular surface = sagittal ridge

2nd + 4th = ‘splint’ bones - vestigial + non-weight-bearing
* palpable ‘button’ at distal end

fibrous joints bet MCs = syndesmosis
* mineralise as age

no dorsal sesamoid bones - only palmar

226
Q

phalanges in horses

A
  1. proximal = long pastern bone w raised ‘V’ on palmar surface = attach oblique distal sesamoidean ligament
  2. middle = short pastern
  3. distal = coffin bone (w/in hoof capsule)

bony contours for attachment collateral ligaments

short pastern
227
Q

coffin bone

A
  • extensor process for attachment common digital extensor tendon
  • palmar processes support lateral cartilages
  • solar surface attachment DDFT
  • striations dorsal surface for hoof attachment + bvs
  • nutrient foramens = vascular channels for bvs enter

horse - w/in hoof capsule

228
Q

centres ossification manus horse

A

MC 3: body + distal epiphysis
MC 2 + 4: proximal epiphysis + body
PP: proximal epiphysis + body
MP: proximal epiphysis + body
DP: body

growth plates between centres
229
Q

proximal sesamoid bones horse

A

palmar to distal end MC3 on either side sagittal ridge, embedded in suspensory ligament
* protect + support SDFT + DDFT

no dorsal sesamoid bones

triangular shaped
230
Q

distal sesamoid horse

A

== navicular bone
* 2 flat articular surfaces
* covered hyaline cartilage - under lots press from bodyweight whole bod
* cancellous centre = spongy, porous, bone tiss filled red BM
* vascular channs
* on palmar aspect DIP joint

dorsal surface articulates w MP + DP
pamlar surface guides DDFT over DIP joint

231
Q

navicular disease syndrome

A

erosion bony matrix w age = visible radiograph

232
Q

metacarpophalangeal joint horse

A

== fetlock bet MC3 + PP
synovial joint w extensive capsule
1. large dorsal pouch w synovial fluid to protect extensor tendons
2. large palmar pouch w synovial fluid incorporating proximal sesamoids

no dorsal sesamoid

233
Q

structure MCP joint horse

A

natural position = extension - only flexion + extension
* tendency collapse into hyperextension
* sesamoidean ligaments
* suspensory ligament = interosseus musc dogs

234
Q

suspensory ligaments

horse

A

origin proximal palmar MC3 to fill area bet splint bones, then bifurcates to:
* abaxial aspect each of proximal sesamoids -> dorsal aspect + fuses w common digital extensor tendon

prevent collapse MCP = hyperextension -> normal extended (relies stability proximal sesamoids)

equiv interosseus musc

235
Q

inter-sesamoidean ligament

A

= proximal scutum (shield)
* reinforced fibrocartilage for passage DDFT + SDFT over sesamoids (= on palmar aspect)
* support carpal joint

236
Q

collateral sesamoidean ligaments

A

proximal sesamoids -> MC + PP
* support carpal joint + hold proximal sesamoids in place

237
Q

distal sesamoidal ligaments horse

A
  1. paired cruciate = prox sesamoids, diagonally cross, -> PP
  2. short = proximal sesamoids -> PP (deepest)
  3. paired oblique = proximal sesamoids -> V-shaped trough on PP
  4. straight = proximal sesamoids -> MP, inserting w SDFT
238
Q

proximal interphalangeal joint horse

A

pastern joint - flexion + extension only
* sagittal groove on distal PP -> sagittal ridge on proximal MP
* collateral ligaments bet PP + MP w extension -> navicular bone

239
Q

distal interphalangeal joint horse

A

sagittal ridge + groove
* broad = some rotation - accomodate uneven ground

common digital extensor tendon + DDFT but NO dorsal elastic ligament

collateral ligaments bet MP + DP

240
Q

ligaments of navicular bone

A
  • collateral ligament PP -> distal sesamoid
  • impar ligament DP -> distal sesamoid
241
Q

navicular bursa

A

== podotrochlear bursa

fluid filled pocket bet navicular bone + DDFT
* sepped from DIP joint by impar ligament
* protects DDFT

242
Q

lateral cartilages

A

== ungual cartilages, on palmar processes DP
* medial + lateral
* project above level of hoof
* shock absorption

not visible radiograph bc cartilage but ossifies + mineralises as age -> ‘sidebone’ (visible)

proximal part palpable

243
Q

extensor tendons distal forelimb horse

A
  1. common digital extensor (CDE) across dorsal aspect carpus joined by 2 branches suspensory ligament + inserts PP, MP + DP
  2. lateral digital (LDE) inserts PP
244
Q

muscs distal forelimb horse

A

below carpus = only fibrous tiss (tendons, ligaments), musc bellies in antebrachium
* stay apparatus - can stand + weight not on musc

245
Q

flexor tendons distal forelimb horse

A
  1. SDFT - thru carpal canal, splits allow DDFT pass thru, inserts MP
  2. DDFT - thru carpal canal, thru split in SDFT, over navicular bone + bursa, inserts DP
  3. each have accessory check ligament (CL)
    * for SDFT originates proximal to carpal canal + fuses w SDFT just distal of carpus
    * for DDFT originates fibrocartilage of palmar ligament on carpus + fuses w DDFT halfway down MC

both palmar aspect

can easily palpate all tendons + ligaments palmar aspect distal forelimb horse

246
Q

tendons on ultrasound

A

lesions hypoechoic (= darker) bc inflammation + necrosis
white lines = normal collagen fibres

lesions = needs rest

247
Q

extra CT structures digital region horse

A
  1. scutum = cartilage shield on palmar aspect joints = smooth passage tendons
  2. annular ligaments (AL) hold SDFT + DDFT against bones
  3. tendon sheath extends distally from annular ligament, shared by SDFT + DDFT (palmar to suspensory ligament)

scutum on MCP joint = intersesamoidean ligament

248
Q

stay apparatus is?

A

most weight borne on forelimb so need mech for passive weight bearing

249
Q

mechs of stay apparatus

A
  1. serratus ventralis suspends bodyweight bet forelimbs
  2. biceps brachii maintains shoulder in extension
  3. collateral ligaments elbow maintain extended
  4. lacertus fibrosis = carpus extended when shoulder extended
250
Q

how does stay apparatus prevent hyperextension carpus

A
  • palmar fibrocartilage joint reinforcement
  • SDFT + check ligament
  • retinaculum
251
Q

how does stay apparatus prevent hyperextension MCP

A
  • suspensory ligament
  • common digital extensor
  • proximal sesamoids
  • distal sesamoidean ligaments
252
Q

how does stay apparatus prevent hyperextension MCP, PIP + DIP

A
  • DDFT + SDFT + check ligaments
  • annular ligaments
253
Q

arterial supply forelimb horse

A
  • brachial artery at medial aspect elbow (palpable pulse)
  • medial + lateral digital arteries on abaxial aspect proximal sesamoids (palpable pulse)

neous drainage similar to dogs

254
Q

how is nerve supply different in horses

A

different sensory areas
* distal to carpus median + ulnar nerves combine to supply pastern + foot combined w musculocutaneous nerve

same motor function

255
Q

major branches median + ulnar nerves after combined in horse

A
  1. palmar metacarpal nerves - paired medial + lateral, bet MC3 + splint bones, emerging distal end to supply dorsal aspect digit
  2. palmar nerves - paired medial + lateral, bet suspensory ligament + SDFT, crossing abaxial aspect aspect proximal sesamoids
    * become palmar digital nerves w dorsal + palmar branches to supply hoof contents
256
Q

use nerve blocks in horses

A

localise area of lameness - give 1 bit distal, still lame = more slightly proximally still lame = more proximal + so on until not lame anymore = know where area of issue + pain is (bc know supplied by that specific branch of nerve)

injecting local anaesthetic

257
Q

palmar digital nerve block

A

on palmar digital nerves adjacent digital arteries just above coronary band
* both medial + lateral injections to block palmar 1/2 foot inc navicular bone

258
Q

abaxial sesamoid nerve block

A

palmar digital nerves + dorsal branches on abaxial aspect sesamoids
* medial + lateral injections to block whole foot

259
Q

palmar metacarpal nerve block

= ‘4 point block’

A
  1. palmar nerves bet suspensory ligament + flexor tendons
  2. AND palmar metacarpal nerves at distal end splint bones (2cm proximal to distal sesamoids)
    * medial + lateral injections to block entire digit
260
Q

label whole distal forelimb horse

A
261
Q

overall hoof structures

diagrams

A

4 parts:
1. wall (toe, quarters, heel, bar) - weight bearing
2. periople - junction bet hoof wall + skin to protect new wall growth (waxy) - prods waterproof layer 2/3 way down to prevent evap, wear, tear
3. sole - shouldn’t touch ground
4. frog - anticoncussive (rubbery)

262
Q

digital cushion

A

deep to frog in hoof made elastic tiss w bvs + fat
* for shock absorption (cf digital pads dog)
* protects DDFT, DP, navicular bone + bursa

263
Q

clinical significance digital cushion hoof

A
  1. penetration injuries
  2. abcess formation = pododermatitis - significant pain + palpable digital pulses - need dig remove pus (may need poultice to soften horn)
264
Q

layers hoof

A
  1. dermis (corium) covers DP + digital cushion w blood + nerve supply (also supplies germinative layer)
  2. germinative prods epidermis
    * active in coronary band + solar surface
265
Q

structure coronary band + how prods hoof

A
  1. dermis formed conical shaped papillae
  2. prod epidermis in form keratin tubes
  3. tubes extend distally towards ground

always growing + gaps filled intertubular horn

266
Q

structure hoof wall

A

dermis fused DP
* surface forms vertical ridges = primary laminae (macroscopic)
* secondary laminae on 1 (microscopic)

then epidermal horn tubes gliding distally bet laminae w internal surface interdigitating w dermal laminae (== epidermal/insensitive laminae)

dermal laminae sensitive (cont blood + nerves)

267
Q

white line of hoof

A

= interdigitation to prevent separation epidermis from DP
* transfers weight hoof wall -> DP

268
Q

how is structure sole + frog diff hoof wall

A

sole:
keratinised flakes + no tubular horns

frog: incomplete keratinisation = soft + elastic

269
Q

weight bearing in hoof

A
  1. frog contacts ground 1st
  2. forces passed -> digital cushion (= blood forced back up leg) + lateral cartilages
  3. then hoof wall touches ground + weight transferred -> DP -> laminae -> hoof wall
270
Q

laminitis

A

inflammation digital laminae = fluid accumulates bet dermal + epidermal laminae
* severe pain, lameness, incr hoof temp
* also causes altered bloodflow
* -> DP rotates + sinks (radiography)

271
Q

role farrier

A
  1. foot trimming as hoof grows continuously
  2. shoeing to protect weight bearing wall - shape means no restrist heel
272
Q

putting in nails for horse shoe

A

into insensitive laminae (white line)
* sledge tipped nails then tips clipped + flattened -> clenches (need be ‘raised’ b4 can remove shoe)

273
Q

traditionally shod hoofs =?

A
  1. front weightbearing - broad, round, 1 or 2 toe clip
  2. back for propulsion = narrow, pointed, 2 toe clips
    * lateral wall more angled + rounded w 4 nails
    * medial more upright, straighter, 3 nails
274
Q

how are ruminant hoofs different

A

cloven hoof w medial + lateral claws + interdigital cleft
* sole but no frog, no bars

lateral wall = convex + continuous w heel
medial wall = vertical up to parapedal groove bet it + heel bulb

otherwise same as horse

275
Q

how is ruminant hoof wall diff to horse

A

only part dermis covered laminae + only primary not secondary
* still have sensitive + insensitive interdigitating

still grows from coronary band, still sensi w insensi in bet + covering

276
Q

how does bovine hoof absorb shock

A
  • bulbous heels
  • digital cushion
  • digits splay, supported by interdigital ligaments

no lateral cartilages or frog

277
Q

problems w ruminants hoofs

A
  1. horn overgrowth bc soft ground - FL = inner claw, HL = outer
  2. solar ulcers, esp parapedal groove -> 2ndary infection if track up DDFT sheath
  3. interdigital dermatitis
  4. white line disease
  5. laminitis
278
Q

sheep + goat hooves

A

same as cattle w skin gland proximal to interdigital cleft prod substance from sebaceous + serous gland

goat well adapted climbing = hard walls, softer soles for traction on steep incline

overgrowth a problem - need to trim

279
Q

pig hoof

A

similar ruminants w no frog or lateral cartilages

280
Q

scapula dog

looking from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • acromion process
  • tuber spine absent
  • supraglenoid tubercle part glenoid cavity
281
Q

scapula horse

looking from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • narrow supraspinous fossa
  • acromion process absent
  • prominent tuber spine
  • supraglenoid tubercle sep from glenoid cavity
  • glenoid notch present
282
Q

scapula cow

looking from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • broad dorsal border + larger infraspinous fossa
  • acromion process blunt + doesn’t reach level of glenoid cavity
  • tuber spine less prominent/absent
  • indistinct glenoid notch
283
Q

pig scapula

looking from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • rounded cranial margin
  • poorly defined acromion
  • prominent tuber
284
Q

dog humerus

looking from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • single greater tubercle
  • supratrochlear foramen
285
Q

horse humerus

from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • cranial + caudal parts to greater tubercle, level w humeral head
  • lesser tubercle similar size greater
  • intermediate tubercle + double intertubercular groove
  • no supratrochlear foramen
  • v prominent deltoid tuberosity
286
Q

cow humerus

from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • greater tubercle w cranial (massive, overhanging intertubercular groove) + caudal parts above level humeral head + pointy
  • single intertubercular groove
  • circular area for insertion infraspinatus m. on lateral aspect greater tubercle
  • deltoid tuberosity smaller than horse
  • no supratrochlear foramen
287
Q

pig humerus

from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • greater tubercle cranial + caudal parts, higher than humeral head, rounded, almost enclosing intertubercular groove
  • single intertubercular groove
  • no supratrochlear foramen
288
Q

dog + cat radius + ulna

from comparative anatomy angle

A

2 complete sep bones = rotation possible

289
Q

horse radius + ulna

from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • proximal ulna present + fused radius
  • body ulna absent
  • distal ulna present + fused radius = lateral styloid process
  • no rotation
  • radius at distal end = medial styloid process
290
Q

ruminant radius + ulna

from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • 2 complete bones
  • fuse as animal ages
  • no rotation
291
Q

pig radius + ulna

from comparative anatomy angle

A
  • 2 complete sep bones
  • ulna same diameter as radius
  • no interosseus space
  • no rotation
292
Q

comparative antomy carpus dog/cat, horse, pig, ruminant

A

dog/cat:
radial + intermediate fused, distal row all present

horse:
all present but variable 1st CB

pig:
all present

ruminant:
proximal row all present, no 1st CB + 2nd/3rd fused in distal row

293
Q

comparative anatomy carpal canal

A

dog/cat = only DDFT through
horse = both DDFT + SDFT
ruminant/pig = DDFT + 1/2 SDFT (splits)

294
Q

comparative anatomy manus

A

dog = digitigrade = weight on digit (2nd-5th), 1st vestigial

horse = unguligrade = weight on distal phalanx (3rd MC + digit only), 2nd + 4th vestigial, no 1st or 5th

ruminants = unguligrade - 3rd + 4th digits present, weight bears on distal phalanx

295
Q

metacarpal bones in ruminants

A

1 + 2 gone, 5= vestigial spur

3 + 4 sep in foetal life but fuse in uterus
* axial bony septum
* proximal end = 1 articular surface
* distal end = 2 articular surfaces
* 4 centres ossification
* 2 medullary cavities (hollow part bone cont BM)

296
Q

ruminant digits

A

everything double horse:
* 2 MCP joints
* 2 pairs proximal sesamoids
* no dorsal sesamoids
* PIP joints
* 2 DIP joints
* 2 distal sesamoid bones

297
Q

MCP joint support ruminants

A
  1. medial + lateral collateral ligaments - axial fused proximally
  2. intersesamoidean ligaments = 2x proximal scuta
  3. AND interdigital intersesamoidean ligament
  4. distal sesamoidean ligaments - only short, cruciate, no oblque + straight
  5. interdigital phalangeal sesamoidean ligament from axial aspect sesamoid -> opp PP, holding PPs together
298
Q

difference in digits small vs large ruminants

A

large = large weight pushes digits apart = need strong atatchments

small = less weight so less firmly attached
* means accomodate rough ground better

299
Q

digit ligaments ruminants

A

proximal interdigital ligament bet PPs (not in small)
distal interdigital ligament bet MPs, cross over (in small + large)

300
Q

suspensory ligament ruminants

A

similar arrangement to horses w 2 branches
* wraps round DDFT
* fuses w SDFT, acting like check ligament

purple bit
301
Q

pig digits

A

bony els for 4th digits
3rd + 4th weight bearing
* 2nd + 5th vestigial + no touch ground

artiodactyla = even no. digits on ungulate

302
Q

digital amputation

A

thru MP removing DIP
* remember interdigital ligaments

local anaesthesia - specific nerve blocks

NSF (22 decks)

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