Ford 1974-1977 Flashcards
election
Ford had risen through the republican ranks in congress because of his reputation for decency, integrity, and fairness.
He cultivated a ‘man of the people’ image helped by his status as an eagle scout and a former university American football star.
However, the start of the satirical late night show ‘Saturday night live’ in 1975 coupled with the effect of Watergate in diluting the prestige of the president allowed comedian chevy chase to impersonate ford every week by falling down stairs, saying wrong thing at wrong time.
Journalists joined in quoting that ford had played too much football without his helmet.
Ford helped the critics by making error in pardoning Nixon. This disastrously affected Fords polling.
Jimmy carter defeated Ford in 1976 through clever tactics and media support. Positioning himself as a devout Christian.
He travelled over 50,000 miles, visited 37 states and delivered over 200 speeches before others even announced their candidacy. Only president to be interviewed by playboy.
carter as president
His first policies were marked by a desire to heal divides – he pardoned Vietnam draft resisters, ended funding for the B-1 bomber airplane.
However, carter was unwilling to use his position to win friends in congress through usual promise of federal spending in certain areas which led to congress being unwilling to co-operate so saw little being achieved.
Carters’ initial popularity with the media faded quickly – the energy policy, SALT II talks and camp David accords lacked punch of CR act or victory in war.
2 stories particularly damaged carter- aug 1979 story of him being attacked by rabbit then in oct he collapsed from heat exhaustion while jogging in full view of press.
Perceptions didn’t do carter justice – he passed 29 new pieces of legislation inc 3 energy, 5 environment and several pro-business acts.
corruption in government
The pardoning of Nixon tainted Fords presidency. Also scandals involving racist comments by Fords secretary of Agri Earl Butz and imprisonment of otto Kerner for bribery. More corruption felt with Fords white house team – kept alexander Haig on and appointed him commander of NATO, Roy ash stayed on as head of OMB and Kenneth Cole as head of domestic council.
Carter – Bert Lance who had role of OMB director was fired year in When he was connected to some dubious banking practices in Georgia – despite being found not guilty he tainted the impression of carter.
Rumours also circulated that his young chief of staff was a cocaine user (accusations false).
Congress also faced a scandal with Korea gate in which 30 congressmen were accused of taking bribes from south Korea government to reverse removal of troops. – one democrat even served a year in prison.
Voter turnout in the midterm elections in 1974 and 78 hit a 30-year low.
Carter also suffered press attention on his own family – his sister Ruth was pictured with Larry Flynt, the owner of the porn magazine hustler.
His brother billy marketed his own brand of beer ‘billy beer’ and received sum of 250,000 from Libyan government leading to senate investigation known as Billygate.
social divisions
Fords 2 years in power saw quietest period since 50s for social Unrest
same could not be said for Carter – many minority groups were still campaigning for what they saw as there constitutional rights notably Mexican American’s under Cesar Chavez and LGBT people who had successfully campaigned for the removal of homosexuality from being a diagnosis in the American Psychiatric association in 1973.
In 1977 14 LGBT activists were invited to the Whitehouse but in 1980 Carter formally refused to issue an executive Order banning LGBT discrimination in the federal government. – he was unwilling to risk his political capital in the first term.
Legislation on women was easier to pass. Ford signed the equal credit opportunity act which outlawed credit discrimination though it had been introduced by Nixon.
Ford was pro womens rights and his wife betty ford made a impact seeking out issues as diverse as abortion and addiction.
Carter had more time and in 1978 passed pregnancy discrimination act,
the 5 US service academies were required to admit women, more than 300 enrolled in 1976.
Under carter shelters for female victims of domestic violence were built, states began adopting domestic violence laws and activists worked to change laws like ones that stated there had to be another witness to charge a man with rape and how a women’s sexual history could be bought up but a mans not.
american dream
The self confident US after ww2 was replaced by US who was humiliated by third world nation in war.
was dependent on the whims of Arabian Sheiks to keep the lights on at home. In NY and Detroit blackouts became common,
factories closed and graffiti proliferated.
Even pastime of going to the movies was in decline.
Very future of the American dream was in decline, increasing divorce rates (up to half), rise in juvenile delinquency and rise in drugs and crime.
People were often underpaid – 70% of new jobs in 70s in low paying services where salaries were eaten away by 10-15% inflation per year.
Also fear that democracy was in danger – report entitled ‘crisis of democracy’ – confidence lost in government
foreign policy
Fords 2 years saw little in way of new initiatives in foreign policy.
Ford presided over a humiliating final retreat from Vietnam. In late April 1975 communist forces entered Saigon and ford ordered the evacuation of all US personnel. This led to a humiliating spectacle of US helicopters taking off from the embassy.
May 1975 saw ford order US marines to retake an American cargo ship which had been seized by the new communist Gov in Cambodia – despite 40 US deaths the ship was retaken, and fords approval ratings soared.
Ford and Kissinger continued Nixon’s goals détente with the soviet. August 1975 ford joined with soviet leader Brezhnev and heads of other EU nations to sign the Helsinki accords which recognised existing boundaries of countries. Accords also included statements in support of human rights. Both ford and Kissinger saw the accords as superficial.
Carter believed that the US should take the lead in promoting human rights while avoiding military intervention. Wanted to promote peace in areas of tension such as the middle east and east asia however he wanted to prevent any reconciliation between Beijing and Moscow.
in June 1979 Brezhnev and Carter signed the SALT II which promised limitations on development of future missiles and reduction to 2250 weapons. However, events in Afghanistan meant the agreement was not ratified.
Carter believed that he had to hold Americas allies to the same standards demanded of its enemies and went on to criticise the USSR where Brezhnev had ignored the human rights aspect of the Helsinki accords.
Military aid was suspended to Chile, Nicaragua, and Uganda as part of the policy. Carter was accused however of hypocrisy in not pushing harder for human rights in the Soviet Union and China.
Brezhnev threatened to end arms talks over the issue, Deng refused to discuss it and carter failed to halt military aid to the shah in Iran whose HR record was condemned by Amnesty international – accused them of 300 political executions.
Carter continued the work Nixon and Kissinger by formally recognising the communist regime in China on 1 January 1979. Deng travelled to the US early 1979 making it clear that Chinas new priorities were technological and economic development.
However, recognising China required severing ties with Taiwan – 1955 Mutual Defence treaty was revoked.
Carters’ recognition allowed trade relations to flourish. Carter didn’t fully abandon Taiwan – Taiwan relations act.
US increasingly dependent on middle eastern oil.
Carter acted as intermediary in the camp David accords which concluded – Israel wld withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula, the US would monitor, Israel and Egypt would sign peace treaty and Israel pledged to negotiated with Palestinians.
Soviet Union invaded Afghan on Christmas 1979. Carter retaliated with embargos and boycotting Moscow Olympics and channelled funds to opponents of USSR in Afghan. To public carter seemed weak.
iran hostage crisis
shah had to flee iran with growing opposition and carter made mistake of allowing him to be treated for cancer.
This outraged people in Iran who were demanding his return to stand trial in Iran.
Carter expected his stay to be short but it turned into 6 weeks.
November 1979 Islamic student militants took control of American embassy in Teheran and took 66 American hostages, demanding the Shahs return along with money and property that the shah had stashed outside of Iran and an apology from America.
Carter was faced with a foreign policy disaster- negotiating would make him look weak, attacking Iran would provoke further resentment and maybe death of hostages.
Carter tried freezing billions of dollars of Iranian assets in the US, he tried secret negotiations but by day 88 of the siege with his chances in election seeping away, carter approved a secret military incursion to free hostages using 8 helicopters, but none even reached Tehran with 3 mechanical problems one even crashing killing 8 soldiers.
Hostages were then split up around the country to prevent 2nd attempt. In end carter agreed to unblock Iranian assets and not interfere in Iranian affairs in return for hostages.
civil rights
sheer size of American cities meant that certain areas had school systems that were dominated by the racial demographic in that area.
distracts began to use system of school buses to take students from one area to another.
In 1971 SC case Swann v charlotte Mecklenburg board of education, the NAACP had successfully argued that 6yo James Swann had right to an integrated education. City of charlotte became model for busing but elsewhere issue caused major tension
1974 Boston ordered busing but caused mobs of whites and riots broke out. President asked to intervene, but ford didn’t.
Milliken v Bradley the court voted that states could only be forced into an integrated busing plan if there was clear evidence that segregation was part of pattern of violation on behalf of the districts. This hastened trend of white flight as parents realised they cld ensure child went to predominantly white school just by moving.
The SC also found in favour of affirmative action in June 1978 in university of California v Bakke which barred racial quota systems but affirmed the constitutional validity of affirmative action. Court in 1979 also did not bar employers from favouring women and minorities.
increasing presence of African American’s in the media -
1970 film watermelon man.
Blaxploitation (genre of film with black actors aimed at black people) films like shaft, foxy brown and backula had become popular.
April 1975 big step made when in pilot episode of Starsky and Hutch black actor Richard ward starred as the supervisor of white detectives.
. 1976 saw academic progress with professor carter Woodson founding black history month
alex Hayley published roots which followed family through slavery and was turned into a Popular tv series which won 9 Emmy awards.
breakthroughs from artists like sly and the family stone, George Clinton, Isaac Hayes, Barry White, Stevie wonder and the Jackson 5.
1979 rappers delight by the sugar hill gang became the first commercially successful hip hop release selling over 500,000 copies
acceptance changed how segregation was – now problem of being born in a location which was distant from sources of employment. Problem exacerbated by white flight from inner cities leaving areas like Pruit-Igoe estate in st louis as sinks of poverty, crime, and isolation.
Nixon declared war on drugs in 1971 which sparked increase in the US prison population by 800%. Feeling among those in ghettos that the black population was now being demonised – for these people, poverty and police brutality remained the reality despite warnings of Kerner commission.
end of carter - blacks comprised 12% of the population but 43% of those on welfare and 35% of those on food stamps.
1980 the urban institute calculated that there were 900,000 members of a black ‘underclass’.
Outside of ghettos economic conditions did improve for blacks – 1975 % of 18-24yo who had completed high school was 64.8% and by 1980 8% graduated from college up from 3% in 1960.
CR groups declined – SNCC disappeared with only few chapters in Texas, black panthers membership declined to 27 by 1980.
1975 the Combahee river collective, black feminist group, were established in Boston and in NY the national black feminist organization.
Salsa soul sisters became first organization for black lesbians in 1974.
There was only 14 black members in the HOR in 1980.
Late 60s and 70s voters began to elect more progressive governors. These inc Terry Sanford in north Carolina, carl sanders and jimmy carter in Georgia, albert brewer in Alabama. This move from racist ones like George Wallace led to term ‘new south’.
Development of air-conditioning made south less intimidating.
However still had environmental discrimination- black neighbourhoods in Houston were often chosen for toxic waste sights. All 5 city owned garbage dumps, 8 garbage incinerators and 3 of 4 landfills were in black neighbourhoods
USA By 1980
Population had reached 224,000,000 up 11% from 1970, the GPD also gone up. However, the country was in recession thanks to the 1979 oil crisis and carters decision to embark on grain embargo directed at USSR in response to their invasion of Afghanistan.
Carter announced boycott of the summer Olympics which were due to be held in Moscow. This backfired as US citizens had to watch soviet athletes sweep the medals.
popular culture the big events of the year were the release of the second Star Wars film which grossed 239 million.
Media scene also expanded with release of Pac Man.
The NASA space probe voyager I passed Saturn and sent the first high resolution images back to earth.
Reagan had been a staunch supporter of containment and argued that the soviets had taken advantage of the policies of détente that Nixon, ford, and carter had adopted. Clearest example was the soviet invasion of Afghanistan that took place in 1979 but Reagan also pointed to the SALT II nuclear treaty which seemed to him to impose greater limits on the US than on the USSR.
Iran hostage crisis also seemed to suggest that the US was no longer feared on the world stage
situation in Europe was stable since 1968. In the middle east, carter had achieved a reconciliation of sorts between the Arabs and Israelis which importantly secured oil imports. In China Deng was proving to be less volatile and more business friendly than Mao. Finally, relations with the USSR had been damaged by invasion of Afghanistan but the power was tilted in the US favour with a stagnant Soviet economy.
The US position was also enhanced by solid long term alliances with the EU powers through NATO.
Despite providing 25% of the UNs funding the US faced defeats, first when people’s republic of China was given seat on the security council in 1971 and again in 1975 when a soviet led resolution that declared Zionism was racism was passed.
opposition to social change
The growth of cable TV allowed for the development of ‘televangelists’ such as Pat Robertson. He used his television station ‘the Christian broadcast Network’ to deliver a conservative message which challenged liberal developments.
Figures like Phyllis Schlafly who published ‘a choice not an echo’ began to speak out against the feminism movement – they were fervently pro- life, shocked by sexual permissiveness in the media, against the equal rights amendment and homosexuality.
Right wing republicans like Barry Goldwater aligned with this new force, blaming democrats and the liberal agenda for rise in divorce and crime rate and a general moral decline – evidenced in the Jonestown massacre 1978 and the death of Harvey Milk
In 1979 preacher jerry Falwell founded the ‘moral majority’ which quickly became one of the most powerful lobbying groups in America – blamed liberal media for corrupting Americas youth.
1980 economic progress
US remained the wealthiest country in the world, a global leader in manufacturing and services. While the return of solvency of Japan and western Europe had eroded the extent of US dominance, the country had become wealthier and consumption of food, entertainment, leisure, and technology had increased.
however, Wages stopped climbing and even the mighty US corporations were struggling against foreign competition. Carter had been forced to bail out Chrysler, the nation’s third largest car manufacturer in 1979.
Unemployment and inflation had also continued to grow. The US was now also dependent on imports of oil for the first time, making its economic success contingent on its foreign policy.
Carters’ failure to stimulate the economy gave Reagan opportunity to condemn him and call for return to tradition of small government.
reagan election
Reagan was the leading republican candidate ahead of the 1980 presidential election. He benefitted from his celebrity and ease in front of the camera but there were concerns about his age, he would turn 70 in a month of assuming presidency.
good performance at the republican national convention which gave him a commanding poll lead over Carter.
however Carter was able to claw back some of Reagans lead as Reagan made several ill-judged appearances such as affirming his support for states’ rights in the very county where bodies of the 3 who had been killed in the freedom summer were found. Then in speech in Chicago he proclaimed Vietnam to be a ‘noble cause’. later he suggested carters Georgia roots inc connections to the KKK. These incidents raised questions about Reagan’s competency.
claims that economy was in recession (which wasn’t strictly true) also hit cord with the public. In debate week before election there was little difference in the content of the 2 but Reagan was more relaxed and confident as well as being over 3 inches taller.
Reagan won 51% of the vote – carters showing was the worse for any incumbent president since 1932.
