British Empire section 4 1947-67 Flashcards
What were the primary reasons for decolonisation?
Economic impact of Second World War.
Changing international situation with rise of Soviet Union and United States emerging as new world powers.
The emergence of powerful nationalist movements in the colonies which aimed to secure independence from European empires.
Changing priorities in Europe with countries by the 1950s experiencing a dramatic post-war recovery and emergence of European Economic Community in 1957, which Britain joined in 1973. As a result, support for Empire dwindled.
Specific problems in colonies such as India and Burma.
How did decolonisation develop in the Gold coast ?
British administrators had anticipated during war that rise of educated African elite meant allowing some African political representation however British wanted change to be gradual and have no imposition on British interests.
In 1946, Burns Constitution (named after Governor-General Alan Burns) drawn up in Gold Coast, establishing Legislative Council with elected African members though final power remained in hands of British Governor.
Convention People’s Party (CPP) founded by Kwame Nkrumah in 1949 pressurised British to make further concessions: Legislative Council enlarged and renamed Assembly and number of voting rights increased but still power remained in hands of British governor.
Though Nkrumah jailed in 1950, CPP won 2/3 of seats in 1951 and became clear to Burns that CPP would rule therefore Nkrumah released and given position of Prime Minister from 1952
Elected government given extensive control over internal affairs and Nkrumah’s popularity grew. In 1956, plebiscite in neighbouring British Mandate of Togoland gave vote for unification with Gold Coast.
Country became fully independent in 1957 but Nkrumah proved divisive and authoritarian in later years of rule.
How did decolonisation develop in Nigeria?
In 1946, Richards Constitution drawn up (named after Arthur Richards, Governor-General). Allowed for greater African representation but Governor-General and Executive Council appointed by Governor retained power.
Country was regionally and ethnically divided and British took view that any move towards independent Nigeria should take form of federation of separate regional states.
Greater pressure for change from nationalist movements forced Macpherson Constitution of 1951 (named after Governor-General after Richards, John Macpherson), which extended right to vote and created National Council of Ministers, answerable to 185-seat House of Representatives. Stimulated growth of Nigerian political parties.
New political parties established representing different ethnic groups which pushed path towards independence.
More power still devolved to regional governments and following federal elections in 1959, moves made towards full independence for country in 1960
How did decolonisation develop in East Africa?
Much more violent in parts of East Africa. Rapid economic growth brought urbanisation, greater political consciousness, activism, nationalist tendencies and labour disputes. During years of war, population of Nairobi increased by ½ while population of cities doubled which led to inflation, poor housing which fuelled protests.
British saw region as ideal for economic development, with view to generating large dollar-earning exports. Greatest symbol of aspirations was Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme of 1946. Failure of scheme provoked East African peasants into supporting nationalist movements.
groundnut Project involved massive investment of £49 million however terrain proved difficult to cultivate and scheme was abandoned in 1951, the land turned into uncultivable dustbowl.
In Kenya, long-simmering Kikuyu grievances at treatment by white settlers exploded into violence, when white people sought to mechanise farming and displace peasant growers. Prompted many to resort to violence and led to Mau Mau Uprising from 1952 to 1956.
British crushed rebellion with great ruthlessness and divided Kikuyu people but in doing so, weakened moral authority and support for nationalists continued.
Tanganyika granted independence as Tanzania in 1961, Uganda in 1962 and Kenya in 1963.
How did decolonisation develop in southern and central Africa?
In Southern Africa, white minority had enjoyed full control over South Africa’s internal affairs since 1931 at the Statute of Westminster.
in 1948, Afrikaner Nationalist Party won power and implemented policy of Apartheid. Non-white people treated poorly and opposition emerged led primarily by African National Congress.
- Throughout 1950s and 1960s, South African state responded with brutal suppression of all protests eg 69 protestors killed by police at Sharpeville in 1960
International opinion became critical of South Africa and relations with Britain grew strained, so far so they left the Commonwealth in 1961. Not over just apartheid but also as South Africa had pressed for Britain to hand over adjacent lands administered by British Colonial Office (such as Bechuanaland, Basutoland and Swaziland but Britain granted them independence
Britain tried counteracting South African influence by building colonial possessions in region, including Northern Rhodesia (a mineral rich copper province), Southern Rhodesia (an agriculturally rich territory with substantial white population) and Nyasaland (an economically undeveloped country).
FINISH
How did decolonisation develop in Burma?
British decided to grant independence to Burma shortly after war, following violent activities of nationalists and ascendancy of AFPFL, led by Aung San. Breakdown of order hastened British withdrawal as they planned to take slower approach.
Talks took place between Aung San and Attlee’s government in London in 1947 and agreed that elections for Constituent Assembly would take place in 1948.
Produced huge AFPFL majority however different factions within AFPFL couldn’t agree on Burma’s future path and in July 1947, Aung San and 6 of cabinet ministers assassinated by rival political faction.
Achievement of independence of Burma in 1948 was not quiet and brought eruption of civil war and Burmese completely turned back on British, rejecting idea of Commonwealth.
How did decolonisation develop in Malaya?
British faced serious problems in establishing control in Malaya in 1945. Peninsula suffered from ethnic tensions between Chinese and Indians and Malay peoples.
UMNO (United Malays National Organisation) created in March 1946 to fight for rights of Malay peoples. Chinese represented by Malay Chinese Association or Malayan Communist Party.
Tensions had run high – 1947, British colonial administration had to abandon original plan (drawn up by Edward Gent in 1944) to create a ‘Malay Union’.
FINISH
How did decolonisation develop in Singapore?
During 1947-1948 given own government with Executive and Legislative Council however only 6/25 seats elected and only British subjects (10% of population) had right to vote.
As part of Federation, government in Singapore struggled to stop communism. In addition to arrests and imprisonment, attempt made to win loyalty of population by enlarging Legislative Council to 32 seats, with 25 chosen by 300,000 electorate in 1953.
Lim Yew Hock impressed British by taking strong action against communists and persuaded Britain in 1957 to implement full internal self-government for Singapore, though island remained part of Empire State of Singapore Act 1958.
In 1959, Lee Kuan Yew of PAP (slightly communist) came to power and British decided in 1963 that Singapore’s future best be assured as part of Malaya, which became ‘Malaysia’.
Scheme proved unworkable and race riots between Chinese and Malays led to breakdown in public order and in August 1965, Singapore expelled from Malaysia and became independent.
What approach did Britain take towards colonial policy and administration from 1947-67?
Colonial administrators took different role. Rapid improvements in agriculture, as well as industrialisation and training. Sir Ralph Furse seen as ‘master of modern civil service’. When retiring in 1948, only 66,000/250,000 employees of Colonial Office were British.
Creation of legislative assemblies in Gold Coast, Nigeria, Central African Federation, Kenya and Malaya - led to Western educated elite taking up positions and eventual independence.
FINISH WITH TEXTBOOK
What was the ‘winds of change’ speech and why is it significant towards colonial policy?
Speech given by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan in Cape Town, South Africa, 3rd February 1960. Warned White South African Parliament that ‘the wind of change is blowing through this continent and whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a fact.’
Suggested a shift in Conservative and general British thinking towards Empire.
How did events leading up to the suez crisis develop in Egypt?
By 1947, Britain fearful about communist Russia’s ambitions in Middle East. Britain still had 10,000 troops stationed in Suez Canal
Britain also had control over Cyprus and air-force bases In Iraq.
FINISH
What happened in the Suez Canal crisis?
In July 1956, Nasser announced nationalisation of Suez Canal Company, which was direct blow to British government who held 44% of shares.
French also outraged and invited Britain to join France in joint assault on Egypt, in alliance with Israel, who was also affected.
secret Anglo-French military discussions took place
Plan was hatched via ‘Protocol of Sevres’ whereby Israel would attack Egypt on 29th October. On following day, France and Britain would demand both sides cease fighting and withdraw troops from vicinity of canal, followed by Franco-British invasion of Canal zone on 31st October to protect it.
British miscalculated international reaction, embarking on military operations without informing the USA, whom immediately condemned the attack and refused to support sterling in currency crisis which war brought upon Britain.
Britain announced a cease-fire within 5 days and both Britain and France began to withdraw troops within weeks. Eden forced to resign and a United Nations force moved in to clear blocked canal and restore peace.
What were the consequences of the Suez Canal crisis?
What were international relations like and how did these influence imperial policies?
How did the Commonwealth develop and what importance did it play in trade with Empire in the decolonisation era?
