british empire section 2 1890-1914 Flashcards
what countries in Africa did Britain take control of in the years 1890-1914?
Ashantiland -
Nigeria - laid claim to Nigeria by virtue of occupation of Royal Niger Company, established in 1876 and by agreement with french in 1890
- The british government took over the responsibilities of the royal niger company and established direct British control in the North in 1900, the south in 1906. Nigeria was then eventually unified in 1914
Uganda - missionaries lived in Buganda and achieved success in converting people. in 1886, King Mwanga asserted authority, executing 30 catholics and protestants, causing civil war
- promised he’d hand over some sovereignty to imperial British east Africa company in return for becoming king again. in 1890 he signed treaty with imperial British east africa company, cedeing powers - was transferred to crown in 1894 and buganda became protectorate as part of uganda
- 1896 constructed uganadan railway from mombosa to connect coast with the fertile lands bordering lake victoria - was nicknamed ‘lunatic line’ due to crazy events eg 35-100 workers being eaten by 2 lions.
kenya - interest dated back to berlin conference as it offered route to uganda.
- natives obtained weapons from germans and took british 9 months to quell - became part of british east africa
zanzibar - ceded to British as part of 1890 treaty between british and germans establishing spheres of influence.
declared protectorate in 1890 and britain installed puppet ruler - when he died his cousin tried to take over which scared the british so they asked him to step down when he refused a naval bombardment took place, becoming the shortest war lasting 38 minutes.
Nyasaland - britain sought control as it was discovered by livingstone and was on shore of the lake Nyasa.
face portegues backed arab attacks until it became of Cecils British South Africa company . became part of british south africa protectorate in 1907
what was the Sudan Campaign
mahdist rebellion of 1881, brought about death of General Gordon in 1885 in Khartoum.
gladstone wanted to withdraw from egypt when it was safe but new Pm salisbury in 1885 he had growing concern for Sudan as he wanted to maintain Egypt for the Suez Canal and was concerned of other european nations trying to intervene in egypt.
the incident at Adowa in 1896 gave Britain an excuse for his campaign as he cld argue for it due to African barbarianism. Kitchener was appointed chief of egyptian army and given orders to penetrate sudanese territory. Additional forces and imperialist support helped him succeed.
kitchener was then ordered to go to fashoda on the headwaters of the nile, where a french expedition arrived. Both laid claims to the region - the ‘fashoda incident’ was viewed with fear as talks of war with france arose. In agreements in 1899, french promised to stay out of the nile in return for territory further west.
what was the jameson raid
1895 gold seeking Uitlanders who were being denied citizenship by Boer government sought help of cecil rhodes - this provided excuse for British intervention.
jameson raid launched on Transvaal - went with only 500 mounted police and where defeated easily - Rhodes was forced to resign
The boers anxious to strike a blow before the British south african army could be reinforced, invaded British territory.
This led to the second Boer war. intially the Boers had some success, but British poured in nearly 400,000 imperial troops at £250 million cost. Boers werent defeated till 1902.
Boers acknowledged themselves as British subjects and Boer republics became British colonies .
The Union of South Africa became a dominion in 1910
What were the main reasons for British expansion in Africa in the years 1890-1914?
STRATEGIC, ECONOMIC AND IMPERIALISTIC – Egyptian expansion was perhaps because of Suez Canal.
Zanzibar and Uganda establishment was because of fact it allowed consolidation of East African expansion → Ugandan Railway, 660 miles was to allow coast and highlands direct access.
Kenya expanded into as it offered route to Uganda.
Cape Colony and Transvaal conflict rooted from Uitlanders and gold → Rhodes’ actions were not liked by British but they had to defend British interest → eventually led to Union of South Africa in 1910.
EUROPEAN RIVALS – Nigeria established because Britain already had charter company (Royal Niger Company established 1879) in the region and French interests grew.
Zanzibar was eyed by the Germans and settled in 1890 treaty. Sudan annexed due to Fashoda incident with French and Italians and French eyeing up territories before however this was finally settled in 1899 when the French agreed to not push onto Nile
PROTECTING OWN TERRITORIES – Ashantiland annexed in 1896 when Prempeh was forced from throne due to them causing skirmishes in trying to annex territory on the coasts of West Africa and the Gold Coast.
How did Britain administer India in the years 1890-1914?
Head of government was Viceroy backed by Indian Civil Service, which was almost entirely white British and recruited from Oxford and Cambridge.
Rule required collaboration with natives and rulers.
Education and expansion of railways enabled Indians to learn English and modernisation.
Economic and social development meant Britain had to interfere economically and physically → tax collection and city/urban growth.
Indian Civil Service often relied on ‘divide and rule’ to hold British rule in India emphasising divisions between race, language, religion, caste, occupation and region
Many Indian elite accepted British rule as route for future and accepted British values.
Who was Lord Curzon?
Viceroy from 1899-1905.
the Indian National Congress, was established in 1885 to campaign for home rule.
Curzon made changes in civil service to improve efficiency and founded Imperial Cadet Corps in 1901, giving native princes and elite figures military training and ‘special’ officer commissions. Reformed universities and police, lowered taxes and adopted gold standard to ensure stable currency.
What happened with the Partition of Bengal?
Curzon decided Bengal should be divided into 2 separate provinces: Muslim-majority province of East Bengal and Assam and Hindu-majority province of West Bengal.
Uproar occurred amongst Hindu elite of West Bengal, many of whom owned land in East Bengal that they leased to Muslim peasants. Hindus saw partition as payback for criticisms of British rule and there were strikes, protests and boycotts of British-made goods.
nationalism began to develop further. Curzon resigned as a result in July 1905.
What were the Morely Minto reforms?
Viceroy Minto (1905-11) was left to deal with fall out of Curzons plans.
supported by liberal government he introduced limited programme of reforms in 1909 in an attempt to appease Bengalis
- indian councils act 1909 enabled 27 indians to be elected from provincial constituencies to viceroy council. However elections were held on a narrow franchise and in some cases representatives were chosen by the British but still provided for greater indian particpitation in government.
Further democratic reform in 1910 meant elections in enlarged provincial councils 135 Indians were able to secure seats across the subcontinent and play a greater part in government at a provincial level
who was viceroy Hardinge?
1910-16
used king george visit to india in 1911 as an opportunity to reunite Bengal.
he moved the indian capital from Calcutta to Delhi (a muslim stronghold ) as a means of undermining revolutionary hindu groups
his declaring war on Indias behalf raised hopes for a ‘new deal’ for indian home rule, leading to the Montague declaration of 1917, which promised eventual self- rule.
How did Britain administer Egypt in the years 1890-1914?
egypt was not technically British until 1914 when it officially became a protectorate. it was only under military occupation.
Britain largely ignored Turkish rights and sultan didnt interfere.
The capitulations - slowed down law making regarding europeans. all foreigners in egypt were granted privileges to protect them from muslim laws against christians. Any new egyptian law affecting europeans had to be approved by the governments of all countries represented in Egypt.
The Caisse de la Dette - included Austria-Hungary, france, germany, russia, italy and britain and controlled Egypts finances. - members of this could prevent British consul general from spending Egypts money on matters they disapproved of eg - plans to use egypts money to finance the reconquest of sudan were thwarted by Russia and France.
Entente cordiale - after fashoda incident 1898, the British and french grew closer and signed this in 1904 whereby the French agreed to respect British special rights in Egypt for return of British recognition of french take over of Morocco.
mixed courts which were set up to deal with cases involving both europeans and Egyptians were not always supportive of the British.
what benefits did the british bring economically and socially to egypt?
Consul-General Evelyn Baring helped wipe Isma’il Pasha’s debt of £70 million and develop Egypt’s economy and infrastructure. Baring made cutbacks to Egypt’s military and bureaucracy, revitalised economy by improving communications and investing in irrigation schemes, improved conditions for Egyptian labourers and introduced better sanitation and health services in towns and stimulated cotton and sugar production.
- Within 10 years, exports of cotton and sugar had trebled and population had risen from 7 to 10 million.
- Baring oversaw rapid expansion of tourism. Thomas Cook & Son became Egypt’s largest employer – providing jobs in hotels, houseboats and excursions. Many wealthy enjoyed to ‘winter’ in Egypt. However, most were advised against mixing with locals.
- Example of irrigation system built was Aswan Dam. 18 metres high and ¼ of a mile long built to hold back waters of Nile. Cost £2 million, opened in 1902 and enabled ½ a million acres of former desert to be irrigated with water from its reservoir, enabling year-round cultivation.
Eldon Gorst, successor of Baring, brought more Egyptians into government to weaken national party. Kitchener in 1913 established new Legislative Assembly - However, represented rich landowners more than regular Egyptians.
how did Britain maintain their interests in egypt ?
Baring reformed Egypt’s army, placing 6000 British troops within to ensure interests weren’t jeopardised by military or popular disturbances and placed under command of General Kitchener.
Changes were made to law courts, police and education though Baring was sceptical extending educational opportunities since he’d seen growth of nationalist movements in India. Egyptians were rarely offered more than a few years of elementary schooling and it wasn’t until 1909 that a new university was founded.
Gorst imposed tighter censorship of press in 1909 and used various penal measures to quell growing nationalist within Egypt but never worked as German government provided funds to fuel anti-British sentiment.
in what ways did the British and nationalists clash ?
By late 1890s, growing middle-class nationalist movement fuelled by newspapers which attacked British for failing to deal with corruption of Khedive’s government and for doing little to help Egypt’s poor.
Nationalists also complained about lack of opportunities for educated Egyptians
A National Party formed in 1881 but revived in 1893 as secret society, attracting Egyptian lawyers and professionals, many educated in Egyptian and European establishments. Sought end of British occupation and own representative government.
Cromer largely ignored demands.
National press horrified by 1906 Denshawai incident - clash between British offiers and egyptian villagers where officers angered villagers by pigeon shooting for sport- officers shot a women meaning egyptians killed the officers.
What was the British ‘Native Policy’?
Most successful form of ‘native policy’ was in Dominions, essentially independent and used for preservation of global power.
Idea that local elites used to facilitate British rule and uphold British interests. Those who supported British were given administrative positions, positions of power or material reward i.e. Sultan Hamad in Zanzibar
‘Native policy’ also often involved favouring one group against another. British East Africa for example, Masai were favoured and rewarded with cattle and tokens of office. Buganda’s king maintain autonomy and chiefs were given land as reward for loyalty.
how British colonial policy was affected by international relations ?
at home -
Britain could no longer maintain ‘two power standard’ where it matched two strongest naval powers, instead settled for 60% margin of Germany.
British industrial power waning in 1900s and maintaining dominance amongst european powers became difficult – change of naval approaches to reliance on france for egypt and mediterraen interests and British interests towards mainland europe.
germany -
- supported anti- British sentiments in Egypt by funding national parties
- supported Boers in Boer war by sending telegram to Transvaal and supplied them with weapons after jameson raid.
- financed railway from Constantinople to Baghdad, forming warm relations with the ottoman empire - seen as provocative in trying to establish foot in trade markets in india and counter Britains dominance of high seas.
- clashes in 1905 and 1911 regarding Morocco - germany questioned french interests and british sided with French
- german invasion of belgium - led to ww1
Russia
- constant tensions over Afghanistan. Treaty of Gandamak 1879 established British foreign policy over afghanistan. Conflict between Russia and Britain known as ‘The great game’
- russian railway to Tashkent (close to afghanistan) caused concern for British.
- movement of troops near afghanistan in 1900 when Britain was stretched by Boer war led to concerns.
- russian defeat in war with Japan in 1905 led to triple entente in 1907.
how did trade and commerce develop in the years 1890-1914?
- wool and sugar from south africa and australia
- Dairy produce and lamb from New Zealand
- beef and wheat from Canada - canada supplied upwards of 10% of british beef and 15% of flour by 1914.
- West African timber, cocoa, rubber, peanuts and palm oil
to an extent trade was plentiful
- india took 20% of total exports, worth almost 150 million by 1914
however, calls for free trade grew - imperial federation league 1884 which opened to promote closer colonial ties was disbanded in 1893, reflecting waning interest in empires commercial importance
britain began trading more with non imperial world like USA
- most of food imports (cheese, apple, fresh mutton) came from non imperial powers, only 10% came from empire.
- Britain imported most of wheat from USA
- in 1896 total trade worth 745 million. Between empire, only 183 million.
- in 1913, Britain imported 75% and exported around 63% of goods to non-empire countries
- in 1897, whole of tropical africa was 1.2% of british exports
- relying on africa for rubber while French, germans and Russians had own rubber synthetic industry, fuelled anti imperial sentiment.
investment
- more investment - 2 billion to 4 billion between 1900-1913
Britain heavily invested in informal empire.
By 1914, had invested twice amount of French and three times amount of Germans overseas
Less money was invested in Empire: moreso into the USA and India as these projects provided bigger returns, as opposed to Empire investment which was ‘safe’.
Colonial Stocks Acts of 1899 and 1900 facilitated number of infrastructure projects, including rail links into African interior from ports of Lagos and Mombasa.
what was the imperial preference?
wanted by Pro-imperialist Joseph Chamberlain
was essentially giving preference to Empire via protective tariffs and prohibition of imports from non-imperial powers.
Chamberlain believed in imperial preference as it would be useful in times of emergency. Believed it had potential for greater productivity and growth.
But was met with resistance from manufacturing, shipping and banking industries whose interests were with free trade.
Death of imperial preference came in 1906 general election when Liberal party was elected, who favoured free trade.
Colonies saw future with other imperial powers. Canada for example was considering commercial union with USA.
role of jospeh chamberlain in the years 1890-1914?
Believed effective use of Empire could sustain British prosperity and prestige. Believed imperial bonds needed reinforcing if Empire was to be preserved or if Britain wanted to stay as world power
Built Ugandan Railway, annexed Ashantiland to Gold Coast, acquired Royal NIger Company, oversaw Jameson raid and Boer War.
Viewed as national hero during Boer War initially but as it dragged along, he was passed over for PM by Balfour in 1903. Resigned as Colonial Secretary and formed Tariff Reform League on importance of duty-free imperial market.
role of cecil rhodes in 1890-1914
Believed Britain could civilise world. Helped establish British South Africa Company in 1889 after First Boer War and eventually called it Rhodesia in 1895.
Wanted to link Cape to British-dominated Sudan and Egypt. Annexed Bechuanaland in 1885 in hopes of establishing railway line from South to North Africa.
Resigned from post as Prime Minister in 1896 after Jameson raid.
role of evelyn Baring in 1890 - 1914
Consul-General in Egypt between 1883 and 1907.
. Believed long occupation of Egypt was essential and established ‘Granville Doctrine’ allowing Baring to dismiss Egyptian ministers who refused to accept British directives.
Placed British officials in key ministries and created veiled protectorate until 1907. Replaced army with British soldiers, dealt with budget, promoted irrigation projects (Aswan Dam) and helped bring economic prosperity. Tewfiq was happy to let him do so.
When Tewfiq died, new Khedive wanted to overthrow British rule. Encouraged nationalist movement but Baring bullied him into submission.
Took action to stop slave supply, discourage slave-ownership, abolish forced labour
Forced to resign in 1906 after Denshawai incident, where locals were hung. Granted £50,000 concession by Parliament for his work in Egypt
role of Alfred Milner in 1890 - 1914
Ardent imperialist and hand-picked by Chamberlain to be HIgh Commissioner of Southern Africa from 1897.
mostly remembered for taking Britain into Boer War.
Demanded full citizenship rights for Uitlanders after 5 years residence and by time of Bloemfontein Conference in 1899, he’d decided to declare war by October.
Left position as Governor of Cape and took adminstration of areas of former Boer territories and Orange Free State annexed by Britain in 1901.
Had a group of young administrators and lawyers known as ‘Milner’s Kindergarten’ working to resettle Boers and promote economic growth. Hoped to attract British settlers and introduce English language education however more British residents left than arrived. British government decided to use Chinese labourers on three-year contracts and they arrived in 1904 to fix shortfall in gold-mining however they were mistreated.
In March 1906, a move was made to censure Milner but a counter-campaign by Bartle Frere expressed gratitude for his services. Ultimately, his treatment of the coolies contributed to the Conservatives losing in 1906.
supporters of empire in the years 1890-1914
Widely accepted among ruling elites and generally accepted across society.
Sometimes justified on authoritarian/moral grounds as responsibility , or the ‘white man’s burden’
Liberals saw Empire as means to an end with colonies pursuing eventual self-rule, with education and improvement of colonies for the people. Generally, Labour and Liberal party saw Empire as something to liberate the people, not something to be liberated from.
Conservative government were seen as ‘real imperialists’. Enthusiastic for Empire
lord salisbury and lord curzon both supported empire
Joseph Chamberlain believed ‘national crisis’ could only be resolved by Empire. Empire could provide employment and enable industrial recovery.
Royal Colonial Institute of 1870, Round Table Movement of 1909 and Victoria League of 1901 supported closer cooperation between Empire and Britain.
Empire Day movement began in 1896 under Lord Meath was not celebrated till 1902 and officially recognised by Parliament in 1916.
Journalists such as Leo Amery and Lord Beaverbrook began to lead big newspapers like the Daily Express, also helping represent Empire as an ‘imperial family’.
critics of empire in 1890-1914
John A. Hobson was an economist starkly opposed to Empire, writing Imperialism in 1902. His view was influenced by the Boer War, believing that imperial expansion had been driven by search for new markets and new opportunities for rich capitalists of Britain to make profits through investment and that the Boer War was a ‘capitalist plot’.
Many critics emerged after Boer War, including Emily Hobhouse, which led government enquiry into conditions during Boer War. Produced detailed report of conditions in concentration camps deployed by British during Boer War.
Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, who made fun of Kipling in his ‘the white man’s burden’ poem
Frederic Harrison, a radical left-wing lawyer and historian who believed imperialism to be unethical.
Walter Crane was an Arts and Crafts designer who used his design skills to produce anti-war illustrations to encourage those on the left to embrace anti-imperialism.
what was national efficency ?
After the Boer War, Britain’s lack of ‘national efficiency’ was exposed. 30,000 Boers held out against British for 2.5 years and though troops from India, Australia and Canada helped, ‘home-grown’ soldiers proved hard to come by. Poor diet and living conditions had weakened Britain’s manpower was a threat to imperial supremacy and industrial strength as decline in British industrial production relative to USA and Germany.
Up to 40% of British recruits had been tested and found unfit for military service and in Manchester, 8000/11000 would-be volunteers were turned away.
In 1902, talks of need for ‘national efficiency’ became common amongst journalists -
Measures were taken to improve national efficiency such as:
1902 Education Act (Conservative) which raised school standards and led to opening of 1000 secondary schools over next decade.
Modernisation of Royal Navy by committing to Dreadnought battleship first launched in 1906 in wake of German naval laws and expansion of German fleet.
Opening of Imperial College in 1907, centre of scientific excellence.
Liberal social reforms including free school meals in 1906, medical inspections in 1907, children’s welfare charter in 1908, pensions in 1908, a trade boards act in 1909 and National Insurance in 1911.
How did British Empire and popular culture develop in the years 1890-1914?
Lord Northcliffe. Helped create ‘tabloid journalism with populist newspapers like the Daily Mail in 1896. Aimed at lower-middle class market and sold at low retail price.
- Selling over a million copies a day during Boer War, filling pages with stories of war and damning Boers and Kruger whilst praising British.
- In 20th century early, the Mail turned against Germans who were portrayed as posing military threat to Empire.
Literature → works of Rudyard Kipling, Samuel Baker and G.A. Henty. Rudyard wrote poems about the ‘white man’s burden’ in glory of Empire. Baker and Henty wrote books like The Dash for Khartoum and With Clive in India amongst others, proving to be Victorian bestsellers.
Music → nationalist and imperialist themes found in music. . Imperial composer Edward Elgar also popular for writing an ‘Imperial March’ for Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 1897. Wrote many other pieces, including the ‘Coronation Ode’ for Edward VII on his accession.
Children’s literature and entertainment → books like Boys of the Empire by E.J. Brett’s and comics like Boy’s Own Paper and Girl’s Own Paper by the Religious Tract Society. Howard Handley Spicer published Boys of the Empire and Boys of Our Empire magazine and set up Boys’ Empire League with 7000 members in 1900. Boy and Girl Scout’s movements by Robert Baden-Powell drummed up imperialist sentiments in young people also. History and Geography books used in schools glorified Empire and events like Empire Day were popular for pageantry.
How was the British Empire represented in popular culture?
Empire represented in cartoon’s like the Punch Cartoon in 1894.
Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee of 1897 was a great representation of Empire.
King George V’s coronation celebrated with a Festival of Empire at Crystal Palace in London 1911. Intra-empire sports championship held as part of festival.
What were the challenges in India?
In 1890s, political opposition to British rule grew amongst educated Indian professional classes and outlet for protest was found in growth of nationalist newspapers like kaal founded in 1898 - the founder of it was sentenced to prision for stirring hostility.
Abhinav Bharat (Young India) organisation established in 1903 became home for revolutionaries and political activists.
Viceroy Curzon’s partition of Bengal prompted most vociferous opposition to Raj.
- swadeshi/self-sufficiency campaign designed to undermine British rule. Public boycott of British goods took place led by leaders like Tilak. The campaign lasted till 1911 and managed to reverse the decision to partition Bengal.
What were the challenges in Africa?
Zanzibar
- British control challenged briefly by Khalid bin Barghash who assumed power in August 1896, following death of pro-British Sultan Hamoud.
- 38 minute war shortest war in history and not a threat.
West Africa
- In 1898, British Governor of Sierra Leone, Colonel Cardew, introduced a new, severe tax on dwellings, known as the ‘hut tax’ and insisted that local chiefs organise followers to maintain roads.
- Demands were met with resistance. Cardew responded militarily and deployed a ‘scorched earth’ approach, involving setting fire to entire villages, farms and crops.
- Secured surrender from primary adversary, in November 1898. Though 100’s killed in process, Cardew had 96 of chief warriors hanged despite British government plea for leniency.
What were the challenges in the Sudan?
causes of the boer war
SOCIAL - Uitlanders had voting rights suppressed. Uitlanders were British settlers who’d flocked to Transvaal in search of gold. Though they paid taxes, denied right to vote: 50,000 Britons excluded from political rights. Led to British support of Jameson raid.
Boers had strong nationalist sentiment and resentment towards British since First Boer War and fuelled by the Jameson raid, shown by reelection of Kruger in his 4th term.
ECONOMIC:
Transvaal prestige and power had grown with discovery of gold on Rand in 1886 near Witwatersrand.
INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUALS:
Tensions between Joseph Chamberlain, Cecil Rhodes and Paul Kruger which prompted Jameson raid in 1895 ultimately led to resentment, prompting mistreatment of Uitlanders.
Alfred Milner demanded reform of Transvaal or war. Demanded full citizenship rights from Uitlanders in Bloemfontein Conference of 1899. Refusal of Kruger to do so ultimately caused the war
consequences of the Boer war
Boer families and Black Africans were put in concentration camps and suffered horrendous conditions.
- By the end of the war, around 115,000 people living in these camps and more - primarily women and children - had died.
- The Boer War shook Britain’s confidence and the moral and military shortcomings displayed by Britain in name of Empire were evident.
- Conflict anticipated to last 3 to 4 months, involving 75k troops and costing no more than £10 million. Instead, it dragged on for almost 3 years, involved 400k troops and cost £230 million. 22,000 British military killed > 6000 Boer military killed.
Vulnerability of British troops became evident, especially as the British had to call on troops from India and other parts of Empire. In South Africa, the British couldn’t rely on sea power.
Promoted talks about ‘national efficiency’
