british empire section 1 1857-1890

Question 1

what had caused the growth of the british empire before 1857

Answer 1

loss of united states prompted ‘swing to the east’ as historian vincent harlow suggested.
concept explained a shift of british imperial priorities to India, Asia, Africa and the East.

slave trade had led to growth in control in africa

mercantilist polcies that benefitted britain over its colonies

Question 2

what were the territories of the British empire in 1857

Answer 2

much of canada
india
most of australia
british guiana and Caribbean
sierra leon
gold coast
union of south africa

Question 3

what were the differences between the british territories in 1857

Answer 3

canada and australia were known as dominions - white settler colonies that exerted a certain amount of self governance and control

india was governed under the raj after the indian mutiny -

had informal control over argentina and british Guiana

governed as british colonies was Sierra Leone, gold coast and union of south africa

Question 4

why did the British expand in africa from 1857-1890

Answer 4

SWING TO THE EAST

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION - production of steamships and weapons allowed for britain to easily establish footholds in places

SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA AND ‘OLD DIPLOMACY’ - growing political power of rivals and competitors .
companies like the Royal Niger Company, the Imperial British East Africa Company and the British South Africa company were chartered to protect the crowns interest in those areas - also done to stop claims of other european powers.

TRADE AND ECONOMY - new trading partners helped during the Great Depression of 1873-1896 - coal, iron and timber were sought to feed demands of British industry
- as british industry grew, need for treade partners grew
- british bought resources from Africa to manufacture into goods such as weapons and textiles and sold them back to Africa.
- expansion in Africa led to opening of inland routes and discovery of minerals and resources meant investment opportunities followed.

STRATEGIC FACTORS -
- cape colony had warm waters, deep ports - allowing for bigger harbours and giving access to Middle East, india, australia, nz and china.
- interests in West Africa were protected by building coastal defences in Sierra Leone and Gambia

IDEA OF ‘MORAL SUPERIORITY’ AND RELIGION
- christian missionaries saw it as a ‘duty’ to educate ‘heathen’ people
- david livingstone is a prime example
-historian lawrence james suggested that there was a general agreement that the empire was a powerful force for the spread of civilisation

ADVENTURERS, EXPLORERS AND SUCCESS STORIES
- explorers and adventurers told stories of gold and raw materials
- merchants like george Goldie and cecil Rhodes vetted success stories of business in Africa. British rule often followed.

Question 5

why were the British originally invested in Egypt?

Answer 5

need for cotton during the american civil war.

british companies began investing in Egyptian cotton and in modernising programme of rulig khedive, isma’il pasha.

by the 1870s, 40% of Egypts imports were coming from Britain

Question 6

what was the suez canal and why was it important to the British?

Answer 6

project led by frenchmen to construct a canal for intenational shipping.
set up in 1858 and completed in 1869. France and egypt had ownership of the shares.

became crucial to the British due to the panic of 1873 and interest grew. - known as ‘the great depression’ British trade plummeted due to goods being transported around cape and having to be stored in warehouses - 5000 miles longer than with Suez Canal.

in 1875 Disraeli bought Egypts shares in the Suez Canal for around 4 million - gave them a passage to India and income from shipping tariffs.

Question 7

how did the British come to take control of Egypt?

Answer 7

purchasing of suez canal sparked further interest

british began to wield considerable influence over Egypt due to its failing economy - British money and resources kept egpyt afloat and british commissioner lord dufferin had considerable influence.

to keep egypts economy afloat, taxes were imposed on Egyptian food and goods, army was reduced to two thirds which increased unemployment so therefore nationalist rebellions under Arabi Pasha conducted in 1882 and british concerns grew due to the 100,000 europeans living in egypt and over secruity of the Suez Canal.

in june 1882 in Alexandria, rebellions led to 50 europeans being killed - gladstone had to invade Egypt with british naval troops
arabi forces defeated some british troops however commander in chief had taken the Suez canal which enabled the British to take control of Cairo and establish control, installing Tewfiq as a puppet ruler and soon major evelyn Barig was installed as consul general. Egypt was a ‘veiled protectorate’

Question 8

how did the British come to control Sudan?

Answer 8

Charles Gordon who was sent to Egpyt to act as Governor General faced opposition. The British intervened but were defeated and did not establish clear control until 1896.

British administrators faced opposition from sudanese islamic cleric Muhammed Ahmad who in 1881 proclaimed himself to be the saviour of mankind.
He drew on long term hostility towards Egyptian rule and british influence.
In 1882 Mahdists took control over the area surrounding Khartoum.

In 1883 the british and Egyptians under the command of william hicks launched counter attack - it failed and hick was killed.

gladstone reluctant to get into further conflict, ordered Generl Gordon to oversea evacuation of british and egyptian troops in 1884 however was overrun in 1885 with virtually the entire garrison killed and general gordon beheaded.

Question 9

what departments oversaw the British empire?

Answer 9

policies regarding empire lay with elected government and separate colonial office department - formally established in 1901 with War office then functioned seperately in 1854.

a separate office for India was established in 1858 after the indian mutiny.

office headed by colonial secretary

dominions elected their own assembilies and ministers
- 1838 Durham report established canada, NZ and Australia into dominions

Question 10

who ran india before 1857 ?

Answer 10

run by the east india company. They’d gained a monopoly over india and oversaw expansion of british influence.

Question 11

why did the EIC stop controlling india

Answer 11

it provoked the indian mutiny where sepoys revolted

thousands were killed and after the governmnet decided to stop the company and hand over all rule to the Queen.

Question 12

what was the government of India act 1858?

Answer 12

act established British rule in india through

passing territories from EIC to the queen (who became empress of india in 1876)

creating secretary of state for India

establishing council of 15 members who assisted Secretary of State

crown appointed a viceroy

indian civil service placed under control of secretary of state - - anybody cld apply to civil service but only white men were chosen.
- also used civil service in ‘divide and rule’ choosing sikh Indians.

Question 13

how was india administered 1857?

Answer 13

had clear hierachy of rule
viceroy ruled india with a legislative council of 5 who held responsibility for finance, law, army, economy and home affairs
in provinces, viceroy was represented by provincial governors

Princely states

in years after the mutiny British gradually began respecting indians and also helped develop india.
- traditional indian paracties were respected particularly in regards to marriage and family law.
- christian missionaries were actively discouraged
- the british developed education and helped build a vast railway- 288 miles in 1876 then 20,000 miles in 1890.

caste system - people divided at birth into particular social classes
- some people believe the caste system was intensified by british imperal rule as it institutionalised the treatment of different castes as part of the system of government.

Question 14

how was india defended from 1858 ?

Answer 14

from 1858 efforts were made to strength the British presence in indian Army which at the time of the mutiny numbered fewer than 40,000 british troops.

EIC armies bought under control of the crown and proportion of british to indian troops raised to a ratio of 1:2 - There was an army of 70,000 british troops/125,000 native troops by the late 1880s

native troops trained and stationed in own districts, cut off from one another to prevent sense of unity - deliberately mixed by caste and religion.

army enlisted a greater number of Gurkhas and Sikhs, who had been loyal during mutiny, replacing bengali troops who hadnt.
- 62/74 bengali regiments disappeared
- many hindu familed took sikh names to maximise career chances

British officers increased and field artillery was handled by the British.
indians also denied officer ranking.

growth of railways helped Indias defence with 3000 miles of track built in the decade following the Mutiny - it exaggerated british presencd and enabled swifter deployment of troops

first viceroy lord canning set up imperial police force as an extra layer of secruity - avoided over- reliance on the army.

Question 15

how did international relations affect expansion of the empire before 1890?

Answer 15

by end of late 19th century, Britain became increasingly concerned about its position in relation to other european powers - began to face challenge from other powers.

in 1871 Germany United as a single country and because of its vast natural resources, began to expand and show its ships on the high seas.

in 1871 france was defeated by germany. France still transformed its armed forces and wanted to show ‘rightful place’ in the world.

Russia, though less industrially advanced began transforming its economy and extending borders into Central Asia. in 1884 it’d taken its empire to the borders of Afghanistan. Russia also began constructing railways which british feared could challenge presence in india.
- Disraeli invaded afghanistan in 1878 due to fear of russian influence growing. Made Amir accept british control of Afghan foreign policy.

Naval building programmes of France and Russia caused concern in 1880s.
- in South East Asia, French established themselves in Into-China in 1860s
- Russia also set on imperial expansion in North of china with work on Trans-siberian Railway beginning in 1891.

British reponse to the French activity in indo china was to annex terrirory in
- malay 1874
- North Borneo 1881
- Brunei 1885
- upper burma 1885
- left thailand as a buffer between rival european powers

Question 16

what happened at the Brussels conference?

Answer 16

1876 king leopold of Belgium hosted conference of explorers and leaders from across europe. Largely motivated by desire to protect belgian interests in the congo

it concluded :
- africans incapable of developing natural resources so european intervention necessary
- routes to Africas lakes needed developing by building roads/railways
- international african association should be established to coordinate european efforts.

competition heightened as it was clear leopold wanted to build an empire.

Question 17

what happened at the Berlin conference ?

Answer 17

1884
secured agreement that both basins and mouths of congo and niger rivers were to remain neutral and open to trade.

major powers negotiated territories into spheres of influence .

if any power took possession of further land on coasts of Africa, it should show effective occupation to assert claims.

the conference triggered a scramble for Africa - by 1900 90% of the continent was in european hands.

conference was a success in terms of european relarions - enabled them to expand empires in ordered fashion without risk of conflict - africa became a safe arena for competing countries

conference did not do much for indigenous peoples
- there was no african representation at the conference
- spheres of influence mapped out with little concern for geographic, ethnic or religious divisions.
- no concerted effort to combat african or arab slave trade and well being and customs of locals was overlooked.

Question 18

what was informal empire?

Answer 18

places influenced by Britain. Usually economically, Via free trade agreements or British investment in the country.

commercial agreements and british investments influenced Latin America, in particular Chile, argentina and Mexico.
- british public capital in Latin American stood at over 80 million
- 10% of British exports went to latin american in 1865

free trade agreements also bought countries like iran and siam(Thailand) under British influence.

weak chinese empire also under influence of british empire.
- began with britain selling opium to china - forced them to make concessions to britain who used naval power to threaten attempts to disrupt opium trade.
- treaty of Tientsin 1858 ensured Britain gained trading bases in places like shanghai and Hong Kong.

britain also used naval force in making sure informal empire upheld free trade treaties in latin america
- 1861 britain put naval pressure on Mexico to maintain trade
- in 1857 and 1863, peru and chile had naval threat to ensure compliance.

territories of strategic importance also fell under British influence due to diplomatic pressures and appointment of key advisors
- sultanate of zanzibar in east Africa, placed under britsh influence due to work of john kirk , 1891 british established a government there with john kirk as minister.
- in afghanistan treaty of gandamak 1879 provided british key strategic locations and control of foreign policy.

informal empire meant britain were able to enjoy influence without responsibility.

Question 19

how did trade and commerce develop for the British empire in the years 1857-1890 ?

Answer 19

by 1870 Britain was at height of commercial and industrial power
- accounted for 1/2 of the worlds trade in textiles and industrial goods
- gross national product was greater than russia and china combined.
- merchant fleet carried 1/2 the worlds sea borne trade

the worlds banking and investment system was based in london
- about 40% of british investment went to imperial territories between 1870 and 1914.

Question 20

how important was trade with empire

Answer 20

20% of British imports came from its empire.
empire provided a market for around 1/3 of britains exports.

empire was important to britains trade as trading patterns were well established. Empire used common language, currency and shared system of commercial law.

growth of free trade saw development of industrial empire in which colonies supplied raw materials and food stuffs which britain converted into finished goods which colonies often bought back.

free trade was prohibited between colonies as britain turned it down in the colonial conference of 1887, showing how britain exploited empire.

Question 21

how did the infrastructure of trade contribute to empire

Answer 21

ships - reached highest efficency in 1860s with clipper ships - suited to low volume, high profit goods like tea opium spices.
development of steamship allowed heavy goods to be carried overseas in 1850s.
reduced travel time between great britain and west Africa to less than 3 weeks and increased cargo capacity

opening of Suez Canal in 1869 and development of triple expansion engine in 1870s further stimulated construction of steam carriers.

railways - key to economic development and maintaining control.
allowed quick transport of goods
allowed britain to pressurise governments
- eg canada was forced to accept British policies on defence mid 1860s, as price of london capital garanteed.

railways allowed australia to export wheat and wool, South Africa to expand territories and commercial interest sin regions, india to link cotton and jute growing areas of North with mills of Bombay and Calcutta and enabling rice to reach ports for export and in west africa allowed for links between land and sea.

canals and rivers - allowed explorers to investigate africa beyond accessible coast areas.

Question 22

what were the products of trade and commerce?

Answer 22

tropical colonies like south africa - goods that werent available in britain like sugar, coffee, cocoa, groundnuts, copra and palm oil

tea in india was important as became most popular drink - in 1854 value was 24,000 by 1876 it was 2,429,000

cotton from india important as was used to convert goods to sell back to colonies - in 1854 value was 1,642,000 then in 1876 was 5,875,000.
- plantations built in india to grow products but workers were often underpaid.

gold discovery in transvaal caused influx of migrants - near 30,000 from cornwall, this helped secure british interest

Question 23

what were chartered countries

Answer 23

were main way of organising trade before 1850

economic depression of 1870s revived idea of chartered companies as way to expand British interests at 0 cost to government
eg in 1881, North Borneo Trading company recieved charter for means of administering territory and maintaining british influence against French. - north borneo had coal, iron, copper and also led to establishment of royal niger company in 1886, imperial british east africa company 1888 and british South Africa company 1889.

Question 24

pros and cons of trade in the years 1857 - 1890

Answer 24

pros
benefitted britain - 1857-1890, 20% of british imports came from empire whilst empire provided market for 30% of british exports.

britain developed infrastructure
- london being financial centre of world - 40% of british foreign investment went to the colonies and built railways, telegraph lines and roads.
- india railways grew 288 in 1857 vs 20,000 miles in 1890

during depression of 1870 britain relied on empire
- value of tea and cotton soared

led to glorification of empire in britain with colonial conferences and exhibitions.

cons

didnt benefit natives in colonies - were underpaid, overworked and mistreated by british

trade between colonies prohibited in the colonial conference of 1887 and britain dominated trading environment -

trade with britain wasnt always helpful as many countries relied on protectionist tariffs to develop their own industries and economies
- eg canda in 1850s and australia in 1860 imposed tariffs againsts britain

Question 25

why were explorers important to empire?

Answer 25

David Livingstone - began travels as a missionary doctor in South Africa1841. He named the infamous ‘Victoria falls’.
he sent 2000 letters back which entertained the public
he published books and conducted lectures at Cambridge recounting what he had seen abroad.
he recieved funding from government to try and open a path for commerce and christianty.
was portrayed as martyre when he was lost and found by henry stanley in 1871.

John Kirk - helped explore waterways with Livingstone.
collected aquatic specimens which he wrote abt and sent back to britain.
returned to africa in 1868 as vice- consul of Zanzibar, which he helped keep as client state of Britain.

Sir Richard Burton - adventurer in 1850s famous for stories of muslim life. Took visits to islamic cities such as mecca where no western christian ahd ever been. He debated with John speke over the source of the nile.

Question 26

why were christian missionaries important to empire?

Answer 26

helped open up territories to Britsh rule by establishing links with indigenous communities.

thought they needed to civilise the ‘heathens’. contributed to imperialistic and jingoistic views in Britain.

methodist missionaries particularly active - by middle of 18th century, wesylean missionaries set up ‘conferences’ to oversea missions in canada, NZ and australia
- those from australia helped establish ground for British rule in fiji 1874
- south african conference similarly established in 1882

in 1883 john mackenzie put pressure on government to establish protectorate over Bechuanaland

missions also established in China and India from 1850s and west indies in 1885

female missionaries also grew
- mary Slessor aimed to end the practice of killing twins in calabar, Nigeria
- mary carpenter worked to improve female education in india in 1866

however some missions also clashed between one another at times, with natives or even colonial rulers. This sometimes delayed British rule by prolonging annexation and challenging imperial authority. Some christian missionaries provided focus for opposition to colonial rule

Question 27

why were traders important to empire?

Answer 27

once commercial enterprises had established a foothold somewhere , british administration often followed

cecil rhodes
- owned all south Africas diamond mines (90% of global diamond production)
- Rhodes granted charter to establish British South Africa Compsny in 1889. in his honour was named rhodesia in 1895
- Rhodes said his ambitions were moralistic and for the bettering of the human race

William Mackinnon
- self made scottish businessman
- 1856 founded calcutta and burma steam navigation comapny - this became British India Steam Navigation company and grew into huge business
- founded imperial British East Africa company in 1888 with a charter supported by Government as a means of establishing influence

George Goldie
- bought a palm oil business in 1875 which was popular due to its lubricating qualities
- formed central african trading company in 1876 and persuaded all local trading firms to join and establish united african company which controlled 30 trading posts.
- Goldie offered concessions to local tribal chiefs who signed treaties to trade only with his company.
- he managed to secure 450 local treaties which allowed the company to have control over their territories and ultimately led to britain to securing protectorate over northern and southern Niger at the Berlin conference 1884-5.
- Goldies firm chartered as Royal Niger Company in 1886 and was knighted in 1887

Question 28

why were administrators important to empire?

Answer 28

empire typically run by ‘men on the spot’

Evelyn Baring
- began career as colonial administrator in india.
- got nickname ‘over-baring’
- his second posting was in Egypt in 1877 where he then became Consul-general in 1882 and established Egypt as a puppet state in 1883 under the dufferin report. This established a ‘veiled protectorate’ in 1885.

Bartle Frere
- served in quelling the Indian mutiny, which won him a knighthood
- was chosen to carry out planned confederation, merging British South Africa with Boer republic of transvaal.
- south african colonists were hostile and transvaal boers wanted to keep independence, leading to Boer War. Although ending in British victory, defeat of British Forces at Isandhlwana in jan 1879 and high cost of war meant gladstones governmnet denounced him for acting recklessly

roles of individuals and ‘men on the spot’ were significant in helping empire expand territorially, extending economic influence and in promoting Glory of empire

Question 29

who was disraeli

Answer 29

prime minister twice

regarded in 1870s as great supporter of empire from crystal palace speech in 1872.

conservative

he asserted that conservatives were the ‘party of empire’ and that liberals wld allow empire to crumble

expansion:
- expanded right to vote for 1.5 million working class men with 1867 reform act.
- 1875 purchased is’mail pashas shares of suez canal for 4 million
- 1876 supported bill which appointed queen Victoria as empress of india. passed in 1877 as royal titles act
- tried to turn afghanistan into a client state with treaty of Gandamak in 1879
- annexed Boer republic of the transvaal in 1877 and had wars on zulu and pedi tribes in hope of establishing British confederation over southern africa. Proved a failure and troops were humiliatied at isandlwana - contributed to liberals winning next election in 1880.

Question 30

who was gladtsone

Answer 30

liberal
prime minister 1868-74, 1880-5, 1886, 1892-4

-he believed Britain needed to avoid new acquisitions and concentrate on developing existing colonies, helping them towards self-government
- distinguished between imperialism which he opposed and empire which he supported.
- for him disraelis ‘imperialist’ talk was dangerous and stired up ‘jingosim’

administration
- had to defend British Garrisons which were attacked by Boers however once troops were defeated at Majuba hill in feb 1881, gladstone declined to committ further troops, time or money to uphold disraelis ambition for British Hegemony over South Africa
- Mahdist rebellion forced him to take action. He ordered withdrawal of british troops in 1884 in Sudan. Wasnt re-elected due to slaughtering of british troops at Khartoum in 1885. - queen and public condemned him for not intervening earlier.
- wanted to maintain suez canal - sent troops in 1881 to stop Arabi Pashas uprising, 1882 installed tewfiq as puppet ruler.
- surprisingly acquired more territory than disraeli, Berlin conference led to protectorates in somaliland and bechuanaland but Tswana being left in power in bechuanaland suggests gladstone was a ‘relectant imperialist’
- was also hesistent when Germany claimed Pacific island of New Guinea in 1884 - he resisted intervention or direct confrontation. Instead ordered occupation of the islands south eastern zone to establish control.
- supported home rule for ireland, again confirming reluctant imperialism

Question 31

what were the attitudes of the British public towards empire between 1857-1890?

Answer 31

in mid 19th century, governmnet didn’t pursue active role due to poor communication, long distances and lack of institutions to deal with Empire.

1870s saw a shift in intensity around empire. Central to this was concerns about other imperial powers.
Other nations began to grow industrially, increasing competition. Tariffs in US and europe prevented British goods from flooding market. Britain had to look elsewhere.

public got infomation through growing popular press publicising stories of heroism.
- 1857 press showed power to influence public in reporting of indian mutiny. British horrified by stories of massacres and tortures eg at cawnpore and thrilled by stories of brave soldiers such as Major General Havelock who recaptured cawnpore. Press turned him into hero and statue of him was put in Trafalgar Square.
-1882 Arabi pashas revolt in egypt was reported , wrote of ‘moslem mobs’ killing ‘all the christians they could find’

education act 1870 increased national literacy rates and extension of the franchise in 1867 and 1884 reform acts made public more politically aware
imperialist literature such as H riders ‘she’ in 1887 led to pride

british people saw themselves as superior and thought that bringing people into empire could civilise them leading them away from being savage and turning them into law abiding citizens

publications like charles Darwins ‘origin of species’ in 1859 led to belief of white superiority and social darwinist views.

Question 32

what were imperial exhibitions ?

Answer 32

held in 1851 and 1862 in South Kensington, featuring over 28,000 exhibitors from 36 countries. displayed 7000 exhibits from india alone

in 1877 a nubian village, featuring animals and humans were collected from sudan and put on display at londons alexandra palace

1886 colonial and indian exhibition featured indians as ‘living exhibits’

Question 33

what was the indian mutiny?

Answer 33

begun among sepoys in Bengal army

began because of weapons having animal fat in them and the general treatment of them

britain responded violently - villages burnt, emperors sons executed, women and children killed

Question 34

what was the impact of the indian mutiny ?

Answer 34

education
- supposed ‘equality of opportunity’ favoured wealthy Indians. illiteracy prevailed among peasants
- universities established in Bombay, Madras and calcutta in 1857
- elite schools like Rajkurmar college, mayo college and bombays cathedral school set up to produce ‘westernised oriential gentlemen’
- after 30 years following 1857 around 60,000 indians entered univirsities, mainly in arts but with 2000 in law.
- 1/3 of calcutta students graduating by 1882 entered government service slightly more in law.
- social reformer mary carpenter vistited india 4 x between 1886-1875. helped establish a corps of British teachers for india and girls schools in Bombay and college to train female indian teachers

economy
- railways - thought built for strategic reasons to affirm British rule, they benefitted india economically. British employed anglo indians and christian indians who were regarded as loyal to run railways, which increased Jobs.
- some european style factories were built however main bulk of goods came from Britain so india was unable to develop industries of own as it once did.
- tea plantations increased from 1 in 1851 to 295 in 1871
- domestic production of raw cotton exported to britain increased in 1880s and 90s
- jobs were provided in civil service, police, army and as clerks
- British offered markets for indian agricultural products, however only for products that were high yileding like rye, barely and coarse rice. india became dependent on food imports and consumption per head declined

Question 35

how were the Boers treated in 1857-1890

Answer 35

Boers
- discovery of diamonds in 1867 triggered a ‘diamond rush’ attracting white settlers and native bantu to the region.
- 1868 annexed Basutoland claiming indigenous africans were seeking british protection against Boers
- 1871 took west griqualand and then east in 1873
- british then proposed federation of British and boer territories in 1875 but the boers rejected
- the area suffered from extreme instability as both british and boers tried exerting control over valuable area for traders.
- british announced annexation of transvaal in 1877 claiming defence of white settlers against Pedi and Zulus. Boers relectantly accepted and britain launched invasion of zululand 1879.
- britain defeated the zulus therefore boers declared total independence from britain in 1880. Boers turned on the British and attacked many garrisons.
- majuba hill 1881 over 150 britons were killed
- britain forced to sign convention of Pretoria, recognising boer self-government in Transvaal tho britain still claimed right to control external affairs.
- 1884 arrival of german presence, rose fears of a german boer alliance so britain annexed Bechuanaland between german south west africa and transvaal to prevent union
- 1886 new gold discoveries near transvaal was eagerly sought by trading companies and bringing mass non-be europeans known as uitlanders including Cecil Rhodes .
- rhodes achieved charter for ‘British South Africa Company’ in 1889.

Question 36

how were the Bantu treated in 1857-1890

Answer 36

bantu land was eroded by white settlers.
discovery of diamonds and gold increased wealth but only benefitted settlers.

laws passed at insistence of mining companies limited right of black Americans to have claims over mines. black africans relegated to manual labour.

they were forbidden by law to live where they wanted and forced to stay in segregated neighbourhoods,