Final (Vocab) Flashcards
each smaller unit in a sub-unit (Like one pearl of a necklace)
monomer
linked monomers (necklace)
polymer
large bio-molecules that are critically important to all living things
macromolecules
a process that joins monomers together by removing a water molecule
dehydration synthesis
a process that breaks a polymer down by adding a molecule of water
hydrolysis
a class of molecules that includes sugars, starches, and fiber; contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
carbohydrates
a nonpolar fat molecule that has similar properties; examples include oils, waxes, steroids, and cholesterol
lipids
hydrocarbon chain often often bonded to glycerol in a lipid
fatty acids
every place that a hydrogen atom can bond to a carbon atom is filled with a hydrogen atom; all carbon-carbon are single bonds
saturated fats
have fewer hydrogen atoms; there is at least one double bond between carbon atoms
unsaturated fats
an organic compound that is made of one or more chains of amino acids and that is a principal component of all cells
protein
a compound class of simple organic compounds that contain a carboxyl group and an amino group that combine and form proteins; contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
amino acids
a bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
covalent bond
the intermolecular force occurring when a hydrogen atom that is bonded to a highly electronegative atom of one molecule is attracted to two unshared electrons of another molecule
hydrogen bond
an organic compound, either DNA or RNA, whose molecules are made up of one or two chains of nucleotides and carry genetic information
nucleic acids
process by which substances change into different substances through the breaking and forming of chemical bonds
chemical reactions
the substances changed during a chemical reaction
reactcants
the substances made by a chemical reaction
products
amount of energy needed to break a bond; or the amount of energy released when a bond forms
bond energy
a state that exists when the concentration of a substance is the same throughout a space; when reactants and products are being made at the same rate
equillibrium
the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction
activation energy
chemical reaction that releases more energy than it absorbs (cellular respiration)
exothermic
absorbs more energy than it releases (photosynthesis)
endothermic
theory that states:
-all living things are made up of cells
-all existing cells are produced by other living cells
-the cell is the most basic unit of life
cell theory
jelly-like substance within the membrane that includes the fluid, cytoskeleton, and all of the organelles except the nucleus
cytoplasm
one of the small bodies found in the cytoplasm that are specialized to perform a specific function
organelles
cell that does not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles
prokaryotic cells
cell that has a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
eukaryotic cells
the cytoplasmic network of protein filaments that plays an essential role in cell movement, shape, and division
cytoskeleton
a membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell’s DNA and stores genetic information
nucleus
a dense region where tiny organelles essential for making proteins are assembled
nucleolus
an interconnected network of inter-folded membranes that assist in the production, processing, and transport of proteins and the production of lipids
endoplasmic reticulum
a cell organelle composed of RNA and protein; the site of protein synthesis
ribosome
a cell organelle that helps make and package materials to be transported out of the cell
golgi apparatus
a small cavity or sac that contains materials from the rest of the cytoplasm and transports these materials from place to place within the cell
vesicle
supply energy to the cell
mitochondria
organelle that is used to store materials that are needed by the cell
vacuole
organelle that contains enzymes
lysosomes
small cylinder shaped organelle made of protein tubes arranged in a circle; aids mitosis
centriole
rigid structure that gives protection, support, and shape to a plant cell
cell wall
organelle where photosynthesis occurs
chloroplast
the life cycle of a cell; consist of a cell-growth period in which DNA is synthesized and a cell-division period in which mitosis takes place
cell cycle
a process of cell division that forms two nuclei, each of which has the same number of chromosomes
mitosis
the division of the cytoplasm of a cell; follows the division of the cell’s nucleus by mitosis or meiosis
cytokensis
one of the structures in the nucleus made up of a long continuous thread of DNA that consists of genes along with regulatory information
chromosome
a type of protein molecule found in the chromosomes of eukaryotic cells; a group of proteins
histones
the substance that composes eukaryotic chromosomes; consists of specific proteins DNA and small amounts of RNA
chromatin
one of the strands of chromosome that become visible during meiosis or mitosis; 1/2 of a duplicated chromosome
chromatid
the region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis
centromere
the region at the tip of a chromosome; forms one of the end points of the DNA segment that makes up a chromosome
telomere
first phase of mitosis where chromatin condenses, the nuclear envelope breaks down, nucleolus disappears, and the centromeres and centriols migrate to opposite sides of the cell
prophase
second phase of mitosis when spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the cell equator
metaphase
third phase of mitosis where chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite sides of the cell
anaphase
last phase of mitosis when a complete set of identical chromosomes is positioned at each pole of the cell, the nuclear membranes start to form, the chromosomes begin to uncoil, and the spindle fibers disassemble
telophase
broad group of proteins that stimulate cell division
growth factors
an enzyme that, when activated, transfers a phosphate group from one molecule to a specific target molecule
kinase
a group of proteins that are rapidly made and destroyed at certain parts in the cell cycle
cyclins
programmed cell death
apoptosis
a type of disorder of cell growth that results in an invasion and destruction of surrounding healthy tissue by abnormal cells
cancer
having no dangerous effects on health, especially referring to an abnormal growth of cells that are not cancerous; cancerous cells that remain clustered together
bengin
cancerous tumor in which cells break away and spread to other parts of the body, causing harm to the organism’s health
malignant
to spread by transferring a disease-causing agent from the sit of the disease to other parts of the body
metastasize
carcinogen substance that produces or promotes the development of cancer
carcinogens
an organic compound that consists of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base; the basic building block of a nucleic-acid chain and small monomers that make up DNA
nucleotides
the spiral staircase structure characteristic of the DNA molecule
double helix
rules stating that in DNA cytosine pairs with guanine and adenine pairs with thymine and that in RNA cytosine pairs guanine and adenine pairs with uracil
base pairing rules
process by which DNA is copied
replication
an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the DNA molecule
DNA polymerase
theory that states that, in cells, information only flows from DNA to RNA to proteins
central dogma
the enzyme will not be able to attach to its substrate any more
denature
the area of the enzyme where the substrate binds
active site
ribonucleic acid, a natural polymer that is present in all living cells and that plays a role in protein synthesis
RNA
What is the sugar the forms the backbone of an RNA molecule?
ribose
the process of forming a nucleic acid by using another molecule as a template; particularly the process of synthesizing RNA by using one strand of a DNA molecule as a template
the process of copying a DNA sequence to produce a complementary strand of RNA
transcription
an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA by using a strand of a DNA molecule as a template
RNA polymerase
form of RNA that carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis
mRNA
RNA that is in the ribosome and guides the translation of mRNA into a protein
rRNA
form of RNA that brings amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis
tRNA
the portion of protein synthesis that takes place at ribosomes and that uses the codons in mRNA molecules to specify the sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chains
translation
a three-nucleotide sequence that encodes an amino acid or signifies a start signal or a stop signal
codon
codon that signals to ribosomes to stop translation
stop codon
codon that signals to ribosomes to begin translation; codes for the first amino acid in a protein
start codon
a region of tRNA molecule that consists of a sequence of three bases that is complementary to an mRNA codon
anticodon
an individual who has one copy a recessive autosomal allele that causes disease in the homozygous condition
carrier
gene that is located on the sex chromosome
sex-linked genes
process that occurs in female mammals in which one of the X chromosomes is randomly turned off in each cell
X chromosome inactivation
a condition in which a trait in an individual is intermediate between the phenotype of the individual’s two parents because the dominant allele is unable to fully express itself
incomplete dominance
a condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed
codominance
trait that is produced by two or more genes
polygenic
can interfere with the expression of other genes
epistatic
cells that make up all of the body’s tissues and organs, except gametes
somatic cells
a haploid reproductive cell that unites with another haploid reproductive cell to form a zygote; female sex cells
gametes
describes a character that is shared by a group of species because it is inherited from a common ancestor; having the same structure
Homologous chromosomes
any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
autosome
one of the pair of chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual
sex chromosomes
reproduction in which gametes from two parents unite
sexual reproduction
the union of a male and female gamete to form a zygote
fertilization
a process in cell division during which the number of chromosomes decreases to half the original number by two divisions of the nucleus, which results in the production of sex cells
meiosis
describes a cell, nucleus, or organism that has only one set of unpaired chromosomes
haploid
a cell that contains two haploid sets of chromosomes
diploid
the most basic unit of heredity
gene
one of the alternative forms of a gene that governs a characteristic
allele
the complete genetic material contained in an individual or species
genome
the entire genetic makeup of an organism; the combination of genes for one or more specific traits
genotype
an organism’s appearance or other detectable characteristics that result from the organism’s genotype and environment
phenotype
a graphic used to predict the results of a genetic cross
punnet square
a diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family
pedigree
image of all the chromosomes in a cell
karyotype
a change in the structure or amount of the genetic material in an organism
mutation
a mutation in which only one nucleotide or nitrogenous base in a gene is changed
point mutation
a mutation, such as insertion or deletion, that results in the misreading of the code during translation because of the change in the reading frame
frameshift mutation
agent that can introduce or increase the frequency of mutation in organisms
mutagens
ecological footprint
amount of land necessary to produce and maintain enough water, food, shelter, energy, and waste
