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Principles of Neuroscience > FINAL REVIEW > Flashcards

FINAL REVIEW Flashcards

1
Q

3 Repugnant ideas (early 1700s)

A

1) Spirits running through hollow nerve fibres to brain and muscles
2) Fermentation from nerve ends and blood, activating muscle
3) Vibrations, light vibrated nerves -> sensation to brain

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2
Q

How did experimentation prove the repugnant ideas wrong?

A

1) Fluid moves slow = not as fast as NS
2) Ligation of nerves = no accumulation of fluid
3) Activating limb muscles = no increase in V
4) Nerves cut underwater = no ferment

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3
Q

What is Sherrington most famous for?

A

Reflex conduction is unidirectional and the reflex responses which he was studying were much slower than was explicable by the speed of nerve conduction (there was a delay somewhere – this was the communication b/n sensory and motor neurons)

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4
Q

Neural crest cell derivatives

A 
PNS ganglia
ENS ganglis
Melanocytes
Cartilage and bone (face, jaw)
Adrenal Medulla Cells
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5
Q

Where are cortical interneurons produced?

A

In the basal forebrain (MGE - Medial ganglionic eminence)

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6
Q

In stimulated emission depletion (STED) methods, how is super resolution achieved?

A

Super resolution is achieved by narrowing the point spread function of the diffraction disc (Airy disc) by using a laser to precisely deactivate the outmost portion of the disc

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7
Q

In stochastic optical reconstruction (STORM) the random switching of fluorescence of individual molecules allows

A

Stochastically switched on, imaged and localized, and then switched off. Many cycles of this allows the centre of these discs to be calculated and the image is constructed from millions of locations.

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8
Q

Magnetoencephalography:

A

Measures the normal (tiny) magnetic fields (billion times smaller than Earth’s magnetic field) associated with brain activity.

The most sensitive magnetic detectors (semi quantum interference devices - SQUIDS) need to be cooled to the temperature of liquid helium to detect these tiny fields. It is expensive and needs to be kept cold, hence not readily available

  • Good temporal, poor spatial resolution
  • Not invasive

As MEG provides no structural information, the MEG data are combined with MRI or CT maps.

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9
Q

As you progress deeper into sleep, what is the EEG like? What kind of rhythm?

A

Brain behaves more coherently, delta rhythms *Loss of consciousness also shows more coherence

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10
Q

When you are awake and at the beginning of sleep (Stage 1 non REM sleep) EEG is quiet or noisy? High or low amplitude and frequency? What kind of rhythms?

A

Noisy, low amplitude, high frequency – alpha and beta rhythms

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11
Q

Which cranial nerves do not connect to brainstem?

A

CN1 and2 - Olfactory and optic nerve

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12
Q

EEG measures

A

Current produced in cortical dendrites by synaptic inputs

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13
Q

What does CN5 aka ___ nerve innervate

A

Trigeminal. Skin of face and skull

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14
Q

3 features of cortical represenation

A

1) Topographic
2) Scaled
3) Plastic (can cut off hand and cortical representation will rearrange itself)

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15
Q

The somatosensory cortex, on the postcentral gyrus, consists of Brodmann areas _______

A

1, 2, 3ab

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16
Q

What happens to 11-cis retinal when light hits

A

*11- cis retinal (has a kink) is sitting in middle of Vitamin A -> light hits -> change in conformation to All-trans retinal

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17
Q

Which lateral inhibition cells are involved in motion?

A

Amacrine cells

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18
Q

Ganglion cells are especially tuned for edges

-If you look slight off-center at a star, you’ll see more stars, hence more rods off centre (8 degrees)

A

Ganglion cells are especially tuned for edges

-If you look slight off-center at a star, you’ll see more stars, hence more rods off centre (8 degrees)

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19
Q

How many layers in LGN and what cell types are they?

A

Six
1,2 = Magnocellular layers (1 layer is for right eye, 1 for left)
3-6 = Parvocellular layers (2 for left, 2 for right)
*There is no communication between both eyes in the LGN, they are in separate layers

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20
Q

Where is the primary visual cortex aka Broadmanns area 17 located?

A

Occipital lobe around the calcarine fissure.

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21
Q

How many layers in primary visual cortex? Which layer does LGN input go to?

A

6 (Layer 1 is surface of brain – layer 6 is inside of brain). 4c

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22
Q

Segregation of info from different types of LGN cells

A

M type GC/LGN input to Layer 4C alpha

P-type GC/LGN input to Layer 4C beta

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23
Q

Mixing of info from each eyes occurs in layers

A

3 and 4B

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24
Q

Ventral stream

A

V1, V2, V4

  • From calcrine fissue, starts from V1 and travels via V2 and V3 down to inferior parts of temporal lobe
  • Important for perception of shape and colour, object recognition
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25
Q

How is impedence mismatch overcome in the ear?

A

The middle ear bones transfer vibrations efficiently from the tympanic membrane (air) to the oval window (liquid) by amplifying pressure. The Eustation tube allows equalisation of pressure across the tympanic membrane.

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26
Q

Number of taste buds

A

2000-5000 taste buds

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27
Q

Role of Granule Cells in olfactory bulb

A

Granule cell neurons (similar to amacrine cells in visual system) act as tuning interneurons that leads to output.

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28
Q

Projection neurons (1 class called mitral cell) are second order olfactory neurons that have branching dendritic trees that form glomeruli with terminals of olfactory receptor cells. Individual glomeruli encode only one odour

A

Projection neurons (1 class called mitral cell) are second order olfactory neurons that have branching dendritic trees that form glomeruli with terminals of olfactory receptor cells.

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29
Q

Primary peristalsis, all functions from stomach to anus - is this a somatic of visceral neuron function?

A

Visceral

*Peristalsis in the oesophagus and sphincters are somatic

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30
Q

Secondary peristalsis is part of CNS or ENS?

A

ENS

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31
Q

Coeliac

A

Gluten-intolerant as villi fall off of small intestine and mucosa becomes smooth, decreasing SA:V by 100 fold - nutrients absorbed decreased

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32
Q

In which parts do these actions occur

a) digestion
b) absorption
c) propulsion

A

a) Digestion (duodenum, jejunum)
b) Absorption (nutrient: duodenum, jejunum; water: ileum, colon)
c) Propulsion (whole length)

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33
Q

Superior colliculus

A

Aka optic tectum, role in directing eye movements

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34
Q

Theoretical structure of memory – Hopfield network

A

Theoretical structure of memory – Hopfield network

  • Individual neurons participate in several memories
  • Partial stimulus is also to recall activity of whole stimulus
  • Distributed
  • Theory applies to all networks of neuron-like elements e.g. Artificial intelligence
  • Located close to the region that responds to a specific modality
35
Q

Where is hippocampus found?

A

Temporal Lobe

36
Q

Role of neocortex

A

•Stores Explicit Memmory
•Recall of stored memory of an event activates parts of cortex active when event was experienced
–Event is partially relived
•During LT memory formation (takes days) continual interaction between neocortex and hippocampus

37
Q

If by themselves LTP and LTD will lead to superposition catastrophe - why?

A

Unless there are other mechanism to balance activity of system out – associative memories will associate with strong memories and force out weaker memories. Hence the only memory you have will be the smell of your mother’s nipple.
-Synaptic homeostasis balances this out

38
Q

One mechanism for LTM identified in invertebrates involves phosphorylation of?

A

CREB (cyclic AMP Response Element Binding protein), which regulates gene expression.
*Ca2+ activates Adenyl Cyclase activates PKA activates CREB

39
Q

Back-propagating dendritic APs activate

A

voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels

40
Q

If AP precedes EPSP, _ is activated, total increase in intra Ca2+ is ___ and you get LT_

A

Ca2+ dependent phosphatase, small, LTD

41
Q

Patient HM – had both medial temporal lobe hippocampus removed (1/4 hippocampus left over)

A

HM showed that hippocampus is essential for the consolidation of explicit episodic memory. Could learn new things (could do procedural tasks) but cannot form new long term memories.

42
Q

Hippocampus is part of cerebral cortex (the bit at the extremities)

  • 90%: 6 layer cortex
  • 10% of brain at edges goes from 5 to 4 to 3 cell layers (from inside to outside)
A

Hippocampus is part of cerebral cortex (the bit at the extremities)

  • 90%: 6 layer cortex
  • 10% of brain at edges goes from 5 to 4 to 3 cell layers (from inside to outside)
43
Q

Are place fields topographic?

A

No

44
Q

What brain structure does working memory depend on?

A

Prefrontal cortex and lateral intraparietal cortex

45
Q

DRAG-85 stops

A

NMDA mediated LTP

46
Q

Knockout subunit of NMDA in specific regions affects place fields by?

A

Reducing their ability to stabilise place fields in new environment

47
Q

Spatiotemporal sketchpad

A

Everywhere else where are you in space and the environment around you e.g. touch, smell, taste

48
Q

Where do the signals that contribute to the hippocampal place fields come from?

A

Entorhinal Cortex

49
Q

Are grid cells topographic?

A

No

50
Q

Grid cells are denser ___ and wider ___. The mesh size varies from ___ to over __ (so wide earlier closely spaced neuronal recordings miss the grid).

A

Denser space dorsally and wider ventrally. 30 cm to 3m

51
Q

Head direction cells

A

A second type of cell defining the animal’s place in the environment appears in regions downstream of the hippocampus (entorhinal cortex, subiculum). Cell fires when animal is facing in a particular direction in an environment (relative to environment, not compass!)

52
Q

Navigation requires a combination of:

A

a) Dead reckoning - self-referenced movement from a known location
b) The generation of landmark-based maps

53
Q

What do lesions in the hippocampus proper affect what type of memory? Paracampal region?

A

Episodic, semantic

54
Q

How do you treat chronic pain thats intractable

A

Put a lesion or cut the spinal cord in that area

55
Q

Sensitization can result in hyperalgesia and allodynia, what are they>

A

Hyperalgesia - increased pain from a stimulus producing pain

Allodynia - pain from a stimulus that does not normally provoke pain (e.g. Suburn causes pain to normally innocuous touch)

56
Q

How can pain be made worse?

A

1) Neurogenic inflammation - release mediators to exaggerate local tissue inflammation
2) Sensitization - increased responsiveness of nociceptive neurons and decreased threshold (based on nociceptor physiology)

57
Q

Opioids – where do they act?

A

Act predominantly on supraspinal opioid receptors (e.g. in PAG) to enhance descending inhibition. ALSO act in dorsal horn to inhibit excitatory NT release

58
Q

Local anaesthetics (e.g. bupivacaine and lidocaine)

A

inhibit AP propagation in axons of peripheral sensory neurons

59
Q

Patients suffering from anxiety/panic attacks have diminished binding to _____ ______ ____ (particularly frontal insular region)

A

Inhibitory NT receptor

60
Q

What did Olds and Milner discover?

A

Self-stimulation sites in the brain

61
Q

What is the VTA?

A

Source (via the median forebrain bundle) of dopamine to prefrontal cortex and associated basal ganglia regions. T

62
Q

Cocaine and amphetamine affect the amount of dopamine in the NS by

A

Binding to the receptors and decreasing dopamine reuptake

63
Q

Reward: wanting or enjoying?

A

Wanting - Rats depleted of striatal dopamine do not seek food, but exhibit liking and disliking behaviours for palatable (sugar) and unpalatable (quinine) food

64
Q

When you get the reward, what brain area is stimulated?

A

Activation of basal part of forebrain, medial septum area.

65
Q

Activity of VTA dopamine neurons is increased during anticipation of reward
e.g. When a monkey is conditioned to receive a reward after a certain stimulus (bell sound), the activity in the VTA increases even before the reward is given to them. If there is a stimulus (bell sound) and no reward is given, the activity of VTA decreases much more compared to how it is at baseline.

A

Activity of VTA dopamine neurons is increased during anticipation of reward
e.g. When a monkey is conditioned to receive a reward after a certain stimulus (bell sound), the activity in the VTA increases even before the reward is given to them. If there is a stimulus (bell sound) and no reward is given, the activity of VTA decreases much more compared to how it is at baseline.

66
Q

Principal zones of the hypothalamus – the lateral and medial is responsible for _ and the periventricular is responsible for _.

A

Lateral and medial = behavioural patterns

Periventricular = neurosecretory

67
Q

What are negative symptoms?

A

An absence of normal actions

68
Q

What genetic mutations are affected in inherited/familial epilepsies?

A

What genetic mutations are affected in inherited/familial epilepsies?
Genes encoding proteins directly associated with neuronal excitability e.g. ion channels, NT receptors

69
Q

_ - _ % of ASD patients have hypotonia (low muscle tone), gait problems, toe walking, and apraxia

A

60-80%

70
Q

All ASD patients have repetitive behaviours

A

All ASD patients have repetitive behaviours

71
Q

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) are GABA/Glutamergic?

A

GABAergic

72
Q

If you are an identical twin with a sibling with ASD, you are _ to _% likely to have ASD too. For non-identical twins this is up to _%

A

60-90, 20

*More than 100 genes associated with ASD

73
Q

When ASD mouse models showed increased motor learning (better at rotarod test), what does this indicate?

A

The repetitive behaviour in ASD

74
Q

What brain region is involved in motor learning in NL3 KO mice?

A

Nucleus accumbens

75
Q

T/F: ASD is homogeneous

A

FALSE - Autism (ASD) is heterogeneous

76
Q

Retinal disparity is proportional or not proportional to distance from eyes (depth)

A

Proportional

77
Q

Strabismic eye is commonly known as ___. Is there conjugate gaze? What age do you need to correct it by to get stereoscopic vision?

A

Lazy eye, there is no conjugate gaze - meaning that eyes don’t move in the same direction. 7 years old

78
Q

If I transplant an extra eye, will it compete for territory? How?

A

Yes. Via repetition of a specific eye where Hebbian/LTP modulation strengthens synapses that correlate with output pattern

79
Q

Childhood maltreatment is associated with increased/reduced volume in hippocampal subfields CA3, dentate gyrus and subiculum

A

Reduced

80
Q

Increased/reduced medial prefrontal cortex volume in adults with childhood emotional maltreatment

A

Reduced

81
Q

Basal ganglia inputs to _____ and cerebellum inputs to ____

A

Motor cortex, brainstem centers

82
Q

Parkinsons

A

Death of dopamine-generating cells in the substantia nigra

83
Q

Huntingtons

A

Neurodegeneration of basal ganglia - leads to increased size of ventricles

Principles of Neuroscience (25 decks)

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