Final Review Flashcards
Labial
between the lips
Labialdental
w/ lips and teeth
Interdental
Between the teeth
Velar
made with the tongue near thesoft palat (at the back of the roof of the mouth)
Stops
The flow of air actually stops as the sound is articulated
Affricatives
Begin like stops (t and d) but end like fricatives (s and z)
Nasals
Made by blocking the mouth and letting the air flow through the nasal cavity
Liquids
made as air flows around the sides of the tounge (laterals)
Retroflex
made by the tounge bending back as the air flows
Semivowels
produced with unrestricted air flow like vowels, but can be followed by vowels
Suprasegmental
are sound modifications that signal meaning other than segmental phonemes (combinations of sounds).
Pitch
The vocal Levels at which sound is produced
2 A Raised 2
represnts the level of pitch known as Rising Pitch, used when we begin to speak.
3A superscript 3
represents the level of pitch (volume) when we are at the accented syllable of the word that gets most stress in an utterance.
1A superscript 1
represents the falling away of pitch as we come to the end of a grammatical unit.
4Level 4
is rarely used except in statements of strong fear, anger, excitement, etc.
The Dog at the Bone
2The dog ate the 3bo′ne1.↓
After the dance, the three giggle girls went to wendy’s.
2After the 3dance,2→2the three giggling cheerleaders went to 3We′ndy’s1.↓
In symbolizing a intonation contour, pitch should be marked in three places:
At the beginning of the contour (grammatical unit)
At the beginning of the syllable bearing the primary stress
At the end of the unit before the terminal (the punctuation mark indicating closure)
Two Patterns of Pitch
231 and 233 (232)
231
Used in giving commands
Used in questions that begin with a question word (Who, what, when, where, why, how, etc.)
Used in statements/declarative sentences
2Today is 3 Th’ursday1↓.
231
2Please shut the 3w′indow1.↓
231
2Who is that striking 3w′oman1?↓
231
233 (232) Pattern
Yes or No questions in question form
Yes or No questions in statement form
Initial grammatical units
2Are you going to the 3c′oncert tonight3?↑
233
2You are Mary’s 3b′rother3?
233
Stress
is the emphasis (or lack of emphasis) placed on a syllable.
Four Levels of Stress
Primary stress– denoted by a ‘
Secondary stress—denoted by a ^
Tertiary (or mid) stress—denoted by a `
Unaccented syllables—denoted by a ˘
Primary Stress
a ‘
Secondary Stress
a ^
Tertiary (or mid) stress
a `
Unaccented Syllables
a ˘
In a two-syllable noun, which syllable usually gets primary stress?
the first syllable
In a two syllable verb,, which syllable egts the primary stress?
the second syllable
Produce as a verb
Prod’uce
Produce as a noun
‘produce
Stress Patterns: Compound Nouns
′ `, primary stress on the first syllable and mid stress on the other major syllable.
Adjective- Noun
^ ′
Verb and Noun Object
^ ′
Verb-adverb
^ ′
Gradation
The changing of a sound in a word when the word is spoken with different levels of stress.
I have two dogs.
Juncture
The pauses in speech (terminal or internal)
Terminal Juncture
closed juncture, coes at the end of contours
Internal Junction
Plus or Open Contours, comes withing words or between words.
↓
This mark is used with declarative sentences, imperatives, and questions beginning with question words.
↑
This mark is used with yes/no questions and with initial grammatical units.
Syncope
ommision of sound from within a word.
ex:
“bizness” for buisness
“govment” for government
Apocope
Omission of sound from the end of a word
ex: gonna for going
VOice Assimilation
making a sound more like the sounds surrounding it through voicing.
ex: budder for butter
mudder for mutter
Place Assimilation
Chaning the place a sound is made
ex: grandma becomes gramma
Dissimilation
Changing a sound to make it less like those around it.
Puntit for Pundit
Gemination
Eliminating a difficult-to-pronounce sequence of sounds resulting from adding a prefix to a base by dropping the final consonant of the prefix and doubling the first letter of the base.
Metathesis
reversalof sounds within a word
prettybecome purty
Epenthesis
addition of sound within a word
athlete becomes athelete
Epithesis
addition of sound at the end of a word
across becomes acrosst
Gradation
a chenge in sound resulting form a shift in stress
Phonology
the study of units of sound
Phone
the smallest unit of sound
Phoneme
a sound in its variations as long as meaning does not change
Allophone
an insignificant variable of a poneme
In a two-syllable noun, which syllable usually gets primary stress?
the first syllable
In a two syllable verb,, which syllable egts the primary stress?
the second syllable
Gradation
The changing of a sound in a word when the word is spoken with different levels of stress.
I have two dogs.
Juncture
The pauses in speech (terminal or internal)
Terminal Juncture
closed juncture, coes at the end of contours
Internal Junction
Plus or Open Contours, comes withing words or between words.
↓
This mark is used with declarative sentences, imperatives, and questions beginning with question words.
+
This mark is used with internal juncture.
Invention
words created from no existing morphemes or phonestheme
Compounding words
words formed by the joining of two or more free morphemes into a single word
Derivation
forming of new words by combining derivational affixes or bound bases with existing words
blending (portmanteau words)
combining two or more parts from two or more existing words
Clip formations
elimination part of a word
Backformation
forming a new word form an existing one, usually verb from a noun, nearly always changing the part of speech
Echoism (onomatopoeia)
words in which the sounds suggest meaning
Reduplication
word with repeating sounds or syllables
Functional Shift
the use of the same word as more than one part of speech
Antonomasia (commonization)
words derived from proper names
Folk etymology (malapropism, Archie Bunker-ism)
using a word in an improper way because of association with a known word or situation, often creating a new word ex: Hearing a song and misunderstanding a word, mishearing something and then creating a new word.
Generalization
giving a more general meaning to a narrow term ex: go- to go by any means of transportation when it once meant to walk, starve- now means to die of hunger, once meant to die
Specialization
narrowing the meaning of a word
Pejoration
giving a derogatory meaning to a word ex: fool used to mean court jester, and now it means idiot.
Amelioration
a once uncomplimentary word now has a more positive meaning. ex: bomb: they dropped a bomb vs. you’re the bomb- wicked: evil vs. cool
Euphemism
substitution of a more pleasant phrase for something unpleasant
Trade Name
using the name of a particular product to refer to and item. ex: coke for soda, Kleenex for tissue, xerox for copy
Phonesthemes
sound combinations that has come to have meaning, units of sound that seem to have meaning but are not true morphemes: fly, flip, flow; glisten, glow, glitter
homogrpahs
words that look alike but have different sounds and meanings: wind a clock, the wind blows; write a resume, resume a project
homophone
words that sound the same but have different meanings: two, to, too
ad-
to, toward
ab-
away from
ante-
before
anti-
against
circum-
around
com-, co-
with, together
contra-
against
de-
down, from
dis-
apart from
hyper-
over
epi-
on, upon
ex-
out of, from
in-
into or not
mis-
wrong
non-
not
ob-
against
per-
through
pro-
forward
re-
back, again
sub-
under
trans-
across
post-
after
un-
not (negates)
pre-
before
inter-
between
intra-
within
an-
without
extra-
beyond
cata-
down
dia-
across
sur-
over
auto-
self
neo-
new
cap (cep,cip)
take, sieze
cid(cis)
cut, kill
dic
say,speak
duc
lead
fer,lat
bear, carry
fac (fec, fic)
do, make
mitt (miss)
send
pon, pos
place, put
port
carry
scrib (scrip)
write
spec
see
ten
hold
ten (tend, tens)
stretch
ven
come
vid (vis)
see
voc
call
sto (sta)
stand
plic, plex
fold, bend
graph
write
doc
teach
aud
hear
ago, eg, ac
do, act
ann, enn
year
pel
drive, force
tang, tac
touch
curr, curs
run
cur
care
moni
warn
ben, born
good
cad, cas
fall
ced, cess
go, yield
do, da
give
Inflectional Affixes
do not change the part of speech, they come at the end of a word (except for infixes), they do not pile up: They close a word.
noun plural
{-s, pl} ex: cats, boys, horses, mice, deer
noun singular possessive
{-‘s} ex: boy’s, cat’s horse’s, of the desk
noun plural possessive
{-s’} ex: boys’, cats’, horses’, of the desks
third person singular present tense
{-s} ex: sees, eats, does, poses, is
simple past tense
{-d pt} ex: walked, drove, needed, sank, slept
past participle
{-d pp} ex: eaten, walked, driven, needed, sunk, slept
Present Participle
{-ing vb} ex: walking, drving, needing, sinking, sleeping (used to show progression)
comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs
slower, friendlier, more (less) beautiful
superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs
{-est sp} ex: slowest, friendliest, most beautiful
Derivational Affixes
all of the suffixes that are not inflectional These words to which these suffixes can be added are arbitrary (not all derivational suffixes can be added to a base) do not normally close out a word (that is, more than one can be added to a base
Morphology
The study of units of meaning
Morpheme
the smallest unit of meaning. Ex. “cow” (a free base) the prefix “un-“ The suffix “’-‘s”
Kinds of Morphemes
free and bound morphemes
Free Morpheme
a morpheme that can stand alone. Ex: Golf, girl, cow
Bound Morpheme
a morpheme that must be used with a prefix or suffix ex: “-er” in golfer
Base
the morpheme that carries the basic meaning of a word
Free Base
a base that does not have to have any other parts to complete it. ex: cow, girl
Bound Base
must have prefixes , suffixes, or both to complete it ex: the “ven” in venture “voc” in vocal
Three types of Affixes
prefixes, suffixes, and infixes
Prefix
come before the base they are attached to ex: unlikely, precursor, mistake
Suffix
follow the base they are attached to ex: vented, ability, sadism
Infixes
come within the base they are attached to ex: drive/ drove tooth/teeth woman/women mouse/mice
Full Morphemes
include nouns, verbs, adjective, and adverbs- content or context words.
Empty Morphemes
include articles, prepositions, conjunctions- function words (adds to other words)
Derivational Affixes
modify the dictionary meaning of a word to which they are added ex: adding “con-“ to “vent” (meaning to come) gives us the word convent, a place where nuns live adding “-ation” to a base such as “voc-“ or “sanc-“ makes the word a noun: vocation, sanction
Inflectional Affixes
modify the word grammatically for person, number, gender, etc. They do not change the part of speech or the dictionary definition of a word. There are nine of these. -bush, bushes -Talk, talks, talked, talking -Poor, poorer, poorest
Allomorph
Insignificant variation of a morpheme
Homophones
spelled differently, but sound alike ex: too, two, to
Homographs
spelled alike, but do not sound alike ex: wind (breeze), wind (a clock)
Orlon
tradename/ invention
rickrack
reduplication, because of the rhyming sound
FEMA
acronomy
smog
blending
retroactive
derivation
terible dactyl
folk etomology
starve
specialization
xerox
trade name
pass on to one’s great reward
euphenism
she wings her way on wings
functional shift
fool (n.)
pejoration
trade-in
compound
cop
acronomy for constonable on control/pejoration
X ray
invented (x doesn’t stand for anything)
fizz
echoism
dissavow
deravational (prefix and suffix)
AWOl
acronomy
telecast
blend
fido
acronomy for freaks irregularities defect oddities
watt
commonization (from a person’s name)
roach
clip
water makes my mouth water
functional shift
armchair
compound
liberated
derivation
write
back formation from writer
legalize
derivation
cafetorium
blend
antineutron
derivation
gym
clip
sandwich
commonization
scrunch
echoism/blend for crunch and squeeze
ice pie (for I Spy)
folk etomology
iffy
derivation
hodgepodge
reduplication
fottock
folk etimology for foot hook
gadabout
compound of gad and about
powder room
euphenism
manila envelope
trade name
phone
clip
overwrite
derviation
oxford
commonization
swelter
blend for sweating in the weltering sun
whoosh
echoism
zap
echoism
zit
invention
constable
derivation
hubbub
reduplication
ASAP
acronomy
reinvent
derivation
_Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound | _
adventure
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
ad\vent\ure_ _ 3 ven bound
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
come ad toward ure D
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
captives
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
cap\tive\s 3 cap bound
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
take, sieze —– —— tive/s D/I
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
abdicated
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
ab\dic\ate\d 4 dic bound
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
speak ab away from ate/d D/I
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
compelling
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
com\pell\ing 3 pell bound
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
drive, force com together ing I
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
pitfallls
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
Cut | # of morphemes | Base | Free/Bound |
pit/fall/s 3 pitt,falls free, free
Meaning | Prefixes | Meaning | Suffixes | I/D
------- ------ ---- s d
children
{-s pl}
Mrs. Horto_n’s_
{ -s sg ps}
the class has studied
{-d pp}
better
{-er cp}
made
{-d pt}
grades
{-s pl}
ran
{-d pt}
screaming
{-ing v}
Common Noun
a generic individual of a class (boy, desk, chair, tree, etc.)
Proper Noun
a specific individual of a class (John, the Taj Mahal, Snoopy, etc.)
Count Noun
has a referent that can be counted (boy, boys; desk, desks; tree, trees)
Mass Noun
has a referent that cannot be counted (milk, money , silver, gold, water)
Collective Noun
can be considered singly or as a group (club, committee, team, group, etc.)
Concrete Noun
the referent has a physical existence (book, television, computer, pen)
Abstract Noun
the referent is a quality (love, fear, air, space, idea)
Even though it is only October
adverbials
Form Class Words
the words necessary to convey meaining in English scentences:
nouns
verbs
adjectives
adverbs
Structure Class Words
Cannot be changed
Support Structure Class Words
Nine Scentence Patterns of English
N1 Vbe N1
N1 Vbe Adj
N1 Vbe Adv
N1 Vlk N1
N1 Vlk adj
N1 Vtr N2
N1 Vtr N3 N2
N1 Vtr N2 N2
N1 Vin__ adv
N1 Vbe N1
The pattern consists of a subject, a form of the verb “be” as the main verb, and a subject complement.
N<sup>1</sup> (SV) V<sup>be</sup> N<sup>1</sup> (SC)
Mary is my best friend.
N<sup>1</sup> (SV) V<sup>be</sup> N<sup>1</sup> (SC)
Mrs. Horton is my Advanced Grammar instructor.
N<sup>1</sup> (SV) V<sup>be </sup> <sup> </sup> N<sup>1</sup> (SC)
Billie Holiday was a famous singer.
(SV)
a noun that is a subject of a verb
(SC)
Subject Compliment
N1 Vbe Adj
This pattern consists of subject, a form of “be” as a main verb, and a predicate adjective.
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>be</sup> Adj (PA)
That lady is so funny.
Adj (PA)
Predicate Adjective
N1 Vbe Adv
This pattern includes a subjects, a forb of “be” as main verb, and an adverb.
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>be</sup> Adv
Spring is here.
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>be</sup> Adv
Spring is in the air
Vtr
you have a noun that is recieveing an action
Identify the scentence pattern:
Mrs. Horton is my Advanced Grammar instructor.
N1 (SV) Vbe N1 (SC)
Mrs. Horton is my Advanced Grammar instructor.
Identify the scentence pattern:
The ballerina was a Russian woman.
N1 (SV) Vbe N1 (SC)
The ballerina was a Russain woman.
Identify the scentence pattern:
My pediatrician had only been a doctor for two years the first time I saw him.
N1 (SV) Vbe N1 (SC)
My pediatrician had only been a doctor for two years the first time I went there.
Miss USA was very pretty.
N1 Vbe Adj
Miss USA was very pretty.
Identify the Scentecne Structure
The moon was behind the trees
N1 Vbe Adv
The moon was behind the trees
Identify the Scentecne Structure:
England is far away
N1 Vbe Adv
England is far away
N1VlkN1
Contains a subject, alink verb such as become, remains, seems, etc., and a predicative nominative (subject complement)
N<sup>1</sup> Vl<sup>k</sup> N<sup>1</sup>
THe little boy became a fireman when he grew up.
Identify the scentence pattern:
Mary remains my best friend after twenty years of putting up with me.
N1VlkN1
N1 Vlk N1
Mary remains my best friend after twenty years of putting up with me.
N1VlkAdj
This pattern contains a subject, linking verb such as becomes, tastes, seems, smells, grows, etc. and a predicate adjective.
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>lk</sup> Adj
This bread tastes stale.
N1VTrN2
This pattern contains a subject, an action verb, and a direct objects of the verb.
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>tr</sup> N<sup>2</sup>
John hit a home run.
N1VtrN3N2
This pattern contains a subject, an action verb, a direct object, and an indirect object (for whom or what something is given, said, or done). Some verbs this pattern will take include tell, give, make, do, ask, play, build, teach, assign, send, etc.
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>tr</sup> N<sup>3</sup> N<sup>2</sup>
The teacher gave the class a new assignment
Identify the scentence pattern:
She seems unhappy
N1VlkAdj
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>lk</sup> Adj
She seems unhappy.
Identify the scentence pattern:
The tiger prowled the jungle.
N1VtrN2
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>tr</sup> N<sup>2</sup>
The tiger prowled the jungle.
Identify the Scentence Pattern:
My granddaughter made me a Valentine.
N1VtrN3N2
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>tr</sup> N<sup>3</sup> N<sup>2</sup>
My granddaughter made me a Valentine.
N1VTrN2N2
This pattern consists of a subject, an action verb, a direct object, and an object complement (which does not always have to be a noun) Such verbs as choose, elect, select, appoint, deem, judge, etc. are used in this pattern.
N<sup>1</sup> V<sup>tr</sup> N<sup>2</sup> n<sup>2</sup>
His trial made O.J. Simpson a household name.
Identify the scentence pattern:
Identify the judge slected Mrs. Word court stenographer.
N1VtrN2N2
Identify the judge slected Mrs. Word court stenographer.
N1Vlm-Adv
This pattern contains a subject and an action verb, but does not have a direct object. Anything that folllows the verb is adverbial in nature.
Birds flew though the trees.
Identify the scentence Pattern:
She dances well.
N1Vlm-Adv
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
FROM: —–
FUNCTION: ———-
POSITION: sub. con.
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
Form: noun
Function: S.V. (subject of the verb)
Posistion: nominal
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
Form: verb
Function: M.V. (Main Verb)
Position: Verbal
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
Form: noun
Function: D.O. (Direct Object)
Position: nominal
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
From: Verb
Function: mod. (modifies) Mary
Position: adjectival (the only thing that modifies nouns)
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
Form: ——-
Function: ———-
Position: Prep.
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
form: ——
Function: ——
Position: Det. (determiner)
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
Form: noun
Function: O.P. (object of the preposition)
Position: nominal
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
form: —–
function: ——
Position: perp.
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
form: noun
Function: O. P.
Position: nominal
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f: verb
f: m.v.
P: per. pro.
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f: —–
f: ——-
P: per. pro./det.
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
F: noun
f: d.o
p: nominal
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f: verb
f: mod. called
p: adverbial
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f: —-
f: ——
p: flag word
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f: —
f: —
p: per. pro.
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f: verb
f: m.v.
p: verbal
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f:
F;
p: per. pro.
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f:—–
F;—-
p: prep.
When John saw Mary running across the field toward the house, he called her name, hoping that she would hear him above the sound of the wind.
f: noun
f: o.p.
p: nominal
Clause
A clause is a group of words containing a subject (doer) and a predicate (a verb form in the main verb position). Clauses may be dependent or independent.
Indpendent Clauses
Independent clauses have a subject, a predicate, and completeness of thought. They stand by themselves.
Dependent Clauses
Like independent clauses, dependent clauses must have their own subject and predicate. They are not, however, able to stand alone.
Adjective Clasuse
Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pronouns such as who, which, whom, whoever, whomever, and that. They modify nouns or noun substitutes and always follow the word they modify.
Adjective Clause Test
A way to test for adjective clauses is the pronoun replacement test: The book that was on the table was Jonathan’s.
Replacement: It was Jonathan’s.
Noun Clause
A noun clause is a dependent clause used as a single-word noun would be used—as subject of the verb, direct object, subject complement, etc.
Noun Clause Introducing Words
that, which, if, whether, and whether or not
Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses behave as single-word adverbs do, answering such questions as when, where, how, to what extent. They modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
Adverbial clause Cues
when, if, after, although, even though.
Simple Scentences
A simple sentence contains one independent clause, but cannot contain any dependent clauses.
The Three Little Pigs laughed at the antics of the Big Bad Wolf and stayed in the neighborhood for many years to come.
Seeing the movie for the first time, I was amazed at its complexity.
Compund Scentences
A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses, but it may not contain any dependent clauses.
The Three Little Pigs were not afraid of the Big Bad Wolf, but they did respect his right to behave like a wolf.
The sisters not only looked alike, but they also acted alike.
Complex Scentences
Complex sentences are sentences that contain one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
When Mary walked into the room, the heads of all the males turned in her direction because she was drop-dead gorgeous!
The first person who made me want to be a teacher was Mr. Limbaugh, my fourth-grade teacher.
Compound-Complex Scentences
Compound-complex sentences contain two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
The Three Little Pigs, who were really irritated by the behavior of the Big Bad Wolf, grew tired of putting up with his nonsense, and they ran him out of town with the threat that they would tar and feather him if he ever returned.
Subject of the verb (SV)
Where a noun is the subject of the main verb
Subject complement (SC)
A noun that compliments or renames the subject of the verb
Direct Object (DO)
A noun for which the action of the main verb is being acted upon
Indirect Object (IO)
The indirect object is the noun or pronoun that receives the direct object.
If you would like, we can give Martha the tickets to tonight’s game.
Retained Object (RO)
an object of a verb in the predicate of a passive construction (as me in “a book was given me” and book in “I was given a book”)
Object Complement (OC)
An object complement is an noun, pronoun, or adjective which follows a direct object and renames it or tells what the direct object has become. It is most often used with verbs of creating or nominating such as make, name, elect, paint, call, etc.
We know there is a difference between calling Mayor Williams and calling Williams mayor or painting a red door and painting a door red. When the word follows the direct object and it tells what the direct object has become, it is the object complement. Sometimes people call it an objective complement. The italicized words on this page are object complements.
Appositive (APP)
An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these examples:
The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.
The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach with hairy legs, is crawling across the kitchen table.
Direct Address (DA)
A direct address is the name of the person (normally) who is being directly spoken to.
It is always a proper noun. It does not have any grammatical relationship to any part of the sentence. It is set off by commas.
Example: What do you think of this, Georgia?
Modifier (ADJ)
We often use two nouns together to show that one thing is a part of something else:
the village church; the car door; the kitchen window; the chair leg;
my coat pocket; London residents
Object of a Preposition
A noun that is the object of a preposition
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table. The book is beneath the table. The book is leaning against the table. The book is beside the table. She held the book over the table. She read the book during class.
Nonfinite Verbs
Often, verbs by formed are used in nonverbal positions as
adjectivals, adverbials, or nominals. Verbs used in these positions are nonfinite.
-ing and infinitive verbs
Qualifiers
Words that pair with adjectives and adverbs to modify them: very, extremely, quite, kind of, sort of, etc.
The water was extremely warm.
The water was boiling hot.
Restricters
Restricters limit the words they modify. The number of words that can act as restricters is quite limited in the English language.
Examples: even, only, just, nearly, almost, particularly, especially, particularly
Just two more days until Spring Break—hurrah!
Almost everyone passed the exam.
Determiners
A determiner is a word that pairs with a noun in a prenominal position.
The dog
That dog
Any dog
John’s dog
His dog
Types of Determiners
Articles—a, an, the
Possessives of personal pronouns—his, her, my, our its, their, your
Possessives of proper names—John’s, Mary’s, Jeannie’s ,etc.
Demonstratives—this, that, these, those
Words like these: any, each, enough, either, which, etc.
Pre-Determiners
These words immediately precede the determiner (whether the determiner is stated or implied). They are
ALL, BOTH, HALF, DOUBLE.
Both the doctors read the x-rays.
Postdeterminer
Postdeterminers come immediately after a determiner but before any adjectives that may modify a noun. They include the following:
Cardinal and ordinal numbers
Possessives of common nouns
Amounts such as few, single, less, more, most
Coordinating Conjunctions
The seven coordinating conjunctions of English connect structures of equal grammatical rank: two independent clauses, two dependent clauses, two nouns, two verbs, two adjectives, two adverbs, etc.
The coordinating conjunctions are FOR, AND, NOR, BUT, OR, YET, SO (FANBOYS).
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions add one clause to another in a subordinate (unequal) relationship. Subordinate clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions are adverbial in nature.
Examples: When, although, before, after, if, even though, since, because, where, though, until, while, as soon as, in order that, so that, etc.
Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are like coordinating conjunctions in their function, but they always occur in pairs:
Not only, but also; both, and; either, or; neither, nor.
Reflexive Pronouns
These –self pronouns usually occur in the predicate part of the sentence, renaming the subject of the sentence.
The firefighter went into the burning building himself rather than sending one of his men.
I told myself I would retire when I stopped enjoying teaching.
Intensive Pronouns
These –self pronouns immediately follow the noun they refer to, and they add emphasis to that noun.
I myself baked those cookies (rather than going out and buying them).
Once you yourself have experienced parenthood, you will understand the joys of parenthood; you really can’t see it through someone else’s eyes.
Demonstrative Pronouns
The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. When they are in the prenominal position, they act as determiners; in the predicate or subject position they are noun substitutes.
Examples:
Pronouns
That is my book.
“The greatest love is this: that a man lay down his life for his friends.”
“These are the times that try men’s souls.”
Determiner:
That book is mine.
Relative Prounouns
Relative pronouns are connectors which relate an adjective clause to the noun it modifies in the sentence in which it appears. Examples are who, whom, which, whichever, whoever, that, etc.
Itterogative Pronouns
These pronouns are those used in asking questions (making question transformations): who, what, whose, which, whoever, whomever, etc.
Who is that masked stranger?
Which of you wants to go first?
What’s the plan, man?
Indefinite pronouns
These pronouns refer to nonspecific people or things; they do not change form to reflect, gender, person or number.
Anyone, everyone, some, nothing, everything, few, many several, all, none, most, no one, one, etc.
Auxillaries
The English language has three kinds of auxiliaries: primary, modal, and periphrastic. Auxiliaries are also known as helping verbs.
Primary—forms of be and/or have
Modal—can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, ought to
Periphrastic—do, did
Expletives
These are the so-called “empty words” followed by a linking or be verb:
There seems to be a problem here.
There are three ducks in the pond.
After winter, spring arrives unexpectedly, bringing with it bright greens, brillant yellows,and purest blues.
simple
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an eassay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
Complex
The trouble with grammar is the many rules and conventions that one has to learn to master it.
complex
After a long, hard day at the office, John went home and craled into bed.
Simple
After the campaigning had concluded, the voters elected Carissa Prom Queen.
Complex
Altough it was against his better judgement, John gave Ingrid a ring for her birthday; she immediately started to plan a wedding!
Compound
I was not there when Shakespeare’s Hamlet was first preformed, but I wish that I had been.
Compound- Complex
A tree fell in the forest, and no one heard it fall.
Compound
Whatever it takes is what I will do to suceed
Complex
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
P: Sub. Con
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: noun
F: S.V.
P: Nominal
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: verb
F: D.O.
P: nominal
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: noun
F: D.O.
P: nominal
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: noun
F: S.V.
P: nominal
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: verb
F: Main Verb
P: Verbal
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: Noun
F: I.O.
P: nominal
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
P: det
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: noun
F: mod. test
P: adjectival
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: noun
F: D.O.
P: nominal
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
F: verb
F: modifies gave
P: adverbial
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
P: Flag Word
After the class finished studying Shakespeare, the instructor gave the students an essay test to determine what they knew about the subject.
P: Prep.
Looking furtively all around, Lauren told Mary the nasty rumors she had heard about Betty.
F: verb
F: Mod. Lauren
P: adjectival
Looking furtively all around, Lauren told Mary the nasty rumors she had heard about Betty.
F: adv
F: mod. looking
P: adverbial
Looking furtively all around, Lauren told Mary the nasty rumors she had heard about Betty.
P: qualifier
Looking furtively all around, Lauren told Mary the nasty rumors she had heard about Betty.
F: u.w
F: mod. looking
P: adverbial
Looking furtively all around, Lauren told Mary the nasty rumors she had heard about Betty.
P: primary auxilary
