Final Review Flashcards
1
Q
Photosynthesis Equation
A
CO2 + H2O + sunlight=C6H12O6 + O2
carbon dioxide + water + light energy=glucose + oxygen
2
Q
(!) Simplified Photosynthesis Definition:
A
The conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds using water and light energy.
3
Q
Explain the process of photosynthesis
A
Carbon dioxide and light energy and water used to produce byproducts oxygen and glucose.
4
Q
Discuss Transpiration and mechanisms that allow it
A
1. Water absorbed by roots and root hairs 2. Water molecules exposed to air and evaporate through pores (i.e., stomata) in leaf (process is transpiration) 3. Water molecules “pull” each other up against gravity due to cohesion and adhesion (and water potential)
Capillary action (adhesion and cohesion)
Adhesion: Attraction of molecules of one kind to another kind (adhesion)
5
Q
Transpiration definition
A
Process of water evaporating through leaves is transpiration
6
Q
*Adhesion is when molecules are attracted to _______ while cohesion is where molecules are attracted to __________.
A
- other kinds of molecules
- each other
7
Q
Visible vs reflected light
A
Pigments allow plants to absorb energy. Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected. Plants don’t absorb green so they are reflecting it.
8
Q
!We see color because visible light represents wavelengths that are _________.
A
reflected.
9
Q
(!)Transpiration is the …
A
evaporation of water through plant leaves.
10
Q
What colors/wavelengths are reflected vs absorbed.
A
Green is reflected.
Red and Blue absorbed.
11
Q
Endosymbiotic Theory
A
Eukaryotes evolved when different types of free-living prokaryotes were incorporated inside larger eukaryotes (engulfed but not digested).
12
Q
Endosymbiosis
A
symbiosis in which one of the symbiotic organisms lives inside the other.
(Early eukaryotes gained chloroplasts and mitochondria through endosymbiosis.)
13
Q
Evolution by natural selection requires that:
A
- individuals in a population VARY in some trait.
- at least some variation is genetically-based (=heritable).
- certain genotypes produce more surviving offspring than others.
- differences in survival among genotypes are due to are due to an an agent of selection.
14
Q
Species:
A
a group of individuals capable of interbreeding, and reproductively isolated from other groups.
15
Q
Speciation:
A
Isolation followed by genetic divergence.
1) One population becomes separated into two populations (often by a physical barrier but not always)
2) Each population independently experiences natural selection
(may also experience mutation and genetic drift)
3) When/if the populations overlap again, they no longer interbreed
16
Q
Allopatric speciation:
A
a physical barrier arises that prevents interbreeding.
17
Q
Sympatric speciation:
A
no physical barrier arises; interbreeding between groups stops for another reason.
18
Q
Three critical processes:
A
- Isolation/ separation
- Genetic divergence
- Reproductive isolation
19
Q
Speciation is complete when…
A
Speciation is complete if the two populations/species can no longer interbreed when they encounter each other. Meaning, there is no longer any gene flow.
20
Q
Node
A
common ancestor at time of split; each node represents a speciation event.
21
Q
Branches:
A
a lineage (e.g., species through time)
22
Q
Phenotype
A
observable traits expressed by an organism
23
Q
genotype
A
underlying genetic makeup of an organism, either entirely or for a specific trait, both physically visible and non-visible (e.g., non-expressed alleles)
24
Q
Evolution
A
a change in allele frequency over time in a population of organisms
25
Genetic drift
random changes in allele frequency from generation to the next
-bottleneck example with jar of red and yellow beans
26
Gene Flow
transfer of alleles from one population to another (usually involves movement of individuals)
-ie: snow geese; brown and white in population 1, brown only in population 2 but white migrate from population 1 to population 2.
27
Monophyletic group
"natural group"
clade
the most recent common ancestor and ALL its descendants
28
Paraphyletic group
| part of Non-monophyletic group
the most recent common ancestor and SOME of its descendants
29
Non-monophyletic group
"artificial group"
grade
some members are more closely related to organisms outside the group
30
polyphyletic
| part of Non-monophyletic group
similar characteristics, no shared ancestor
31
Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cells
- Eukaryotic cells have true nuclei and membrane-bounded organelles.
- Organelles: “Little organs” of a cell. Organelles can be membrane bounded or not (e.g., ribosomes do not have a membrane).
- Prokaryotic cells are structurally more simple than eukaryotic cells (no nuclear membrane).
32
Eukaryotes (difference from Prokaryote)
- have a nuclear envelope
- often (except for plants) no cell wall (allows for movement)
- sophisticated cytoskeleton
- vesicles for digestion
- Organelles
33
diploid-dominant
multicellular diploid stage is the most obvious life stage
-diploid meaning both sets of chromosomes
-only haploid cells, meaning one set of chromosomes, are the gametes
-gametes are the reproductive sex cell
-humans and most animals are diploid dominant
human chromosomes (46); 23 from each parent
34
alternation of generations
haploid and diploid stages both multicellular and both dominate at some point
• Multicellular structures develop to protect the reproductive structures
* Aided the transition to life on land
* Plants and some algae have an “alternation of generations”
35
gamete
mature reproductive or sex cell that contains a haploid number of chromosomes
36
Mitosis Vs Meosis
Mitosis goal is growth (two identical cells);
| Goal of meiosis is diversity (make 4 different cells that are all haploid)
37
what's the product of meiosis?
haploid
38
what's the product of fertilization
diploid
39
zygote
(single cell, 2n): produced by syngamy (aka fertilization) from gametes
40
gamete
(single cell, n): produced by mitosis goes through syngamy to produce the zygote
41
Fungi
eukaryotic organisms that are more closely related to animals than to plants
42
List 3 characteristics of Fungi
1) ABSORB nutrition
2) CHITIN in cell wall
3) HETEROTROPHIC
43
What two sequences does fungi syngamy require?
1) plasmogamy: fusion of the cytoplasm
| 2) karyogamy: fusion of the nuclei
44
plasmogamy:
fusion of the cytoplasm
45
karyogamy:
fusion of the nuclei
46
Lichens
-mutualistic relationship between fungus + photosynthetic organism (photosynthetic partner is either cyanobacterium, algae, or both)
- Hardy and can survive harsh environments
- Sensitive to toxic compounds (good indicators of air pollution)
47
What do fungus provide in Lichens?
Fungus provides: protection, attachment, acquisition of water, minerals.
48
What do alga provide in Lichens?
Alga provides: carbon compounds (e.g., sugars, amino acids
49
Mycorrhizae
mutualistic relationship between plant roots + fungal hyphae
A mycorrhizae-plant mutualism was present in some of the earliest land plants!
50
What does fungus provide in Mycorrhizae?
Fungus provides: hyphae penetrates soil around plant roots and increases surface area (more water/mineral/nutrients absorbed).
51
What does plant provide in Mycorrhizae?
Plant provides: carbon compounds (e.g., sugars, amino acids)àproducts of photosynthesis)
52
What defines an animal? (5)
1) multicellular
2) heterotrophic
3) No cell wall (has ECM instead)
4) Self propelled movement (muscle cell)
5) Neurons (all but sponges)
53
Parthenogenesis
the production of an organism from an unfertilized egg
54
Most parasites must:
Most parasites must:
1) Find “SAFE” host versus a hostile environment
2) ESTABLISH on/in host (e.g., cross into skin, gut wall, etc.)
3) EVADE host immune system, or if ectoparasite, behavioral defense (grooming, swatting)
4) grow and REPRODUCE in host
5) DISPERSE from and find new host
*Adaptations for one species of host unlikely to be effective for another
55
Parasites are grouped by
-size
1) Microparasites: unicellular (e.g., viruses, bacteria, protists, and single-celled fungi)
2) Macroparasites: multicellular (e.g., arthropods, nematodes, flatworms, and multicellular fungi)
56
Size influences...
-the way the host is used...
- Microparasites generally infect cells,
- Macroparasites are usually external or in the gut
57
What are the categories we use to analyze animal behavior? (Fruit fly example) (4)
(Mechanism)
What sensory stimuli cause males to box?
(Development)
Do they box better with age/experience?
(Function)
Does winning a contest benefit males?
(Evolution)
Did ancestors of walnut flies box?à Evolution
58
Mechanism
the physiological or neurological basis of a
behavior
(e.g., ‘how does it work?’)
59
Development
the role of age and experience in behavior
| e.g., How does it develop? Instinctual or learned?
60
Function
the adaptive VALUE of a behavior
| e.g., why has natural selection favored this behavior?
61
Evolution
the evolutionary history of a behavior
| e.g., where did the behavior come from in the evolution of this group?
62
Instincts beneficial...
when mistakes not an option.
Example: Hesitating instinctively when in danger (e.g., at the edge of a cliff as shown in ducklings, kittens, human infants)
Example: Instinctive startle response to predators. (e.g. Silhouette by chicks)
63
Instinctive behavior is...
| cost
inflexible
Example: Code breaking in brood parasites.
64
Benefit of learning is that it is ...
flexible.
65
Flexibility
-different lessons in different environments
(ie- When a red flower has more nectar, a bee may learn to prefer red; elsewhere it may be a different color or shape that has greatest reward)
66
Cost of learning
Learning involves mistakes.
requires energy and brain resources
(ie- A predator that has to learn to avoid brightly colored prey risks being poisoned on his first taste.
67
Altruism
Any behavior that benefits a recipient while incurring a cost to its donor
68
Explanations for Altruism
Explanations for Altruism
1. Manipulation: donor as “dupe”
• Donor is providing the beneficial behavior
• In other words, altruism through ignorance.
2. Reciprocity: altruism through cooperation (e.g., you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours!)
3. Kin Selection: Propagating your genes by helping genetic relatives propagate their genes.
69
Example of Manipulation (altruism)
(Brood Parasitism)
- Cowbirds and cuckoos lay eggs in nests of host birds
- Host bird raises “parasite” young
70
Humans exercise a special kind of reciprocity, termed...
-indirect reciprocity
Reciprocity in which the return for a donor’s act comes from someone other than the recipient.
71
Example of Reciprocity (altruism)
Example: Olive baboons
• Males form a paired alliance to pull females away from current mates.
• Yet only one male of the pair mates with the female.
• Presumably, the other member of the pair mates with
the female the next time.
Example: Cotton Top Tamarins
Preferentially give food to those who give to them.
72
Reciprocity
Reciprocity: altruism through COOPERATION (e.g., you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours!)
73
Kin Selection
Propagating your genes by helping genetic relatives propagate their genes. (altruism)
74
Manipulation
Manipulation: donor as “dupe”
• Donor is providing the beneficial behavior
• In other words, altruism through ignorance.
75
Example of Kin Selection
Example: Belding’s ground squirrel. Produces alarm call to warn colony of predator
Example: naked mole rats (sterile castes)
• African mammals that live underground and feed
on plant roots.
• Are highly inbred, leading to high genetic
relatedness.
• Breeding restricted to a single queen.
76
Symbiosis
“Living together”
– a persistent association between two or more unrelated organisms
77
Interaction is classified by the effect of the ...
symbiont on the host
78
Symbiont
CONSUMER of resource
79
Host
PROVIDER of resource
80
Types of symbiotic relationships
- mutualism
- commensalism
- parasitism
81
mutualism
+ + interaction
both host and symbiont benefit
based on reciprocity
greater reward than cost
Note: Based on persistent association
Plant/pollen
82
commensalism
+ 0 interaction
symbiont has a positive Benefit
host has no benefit or loss
-ie barnacle(home) and whale(no impact)
83
parasitic
+ x interaction
symbiont has a positive benefit
host has loss or affected negatively
ie- tapworm and dog
84
parasitic
+ x interaction
symbiont has a positive benefit
host has loss or affected negatively
ie- tapworm and dog
85
obligate mutualism
organisms rely on each other for survival
86
facultative mutualism
independently
87
Open system
• Energy flows to AND from the Earth
88
Closed system
• Nutrients cycle WITHIN the Earth
89
Species Richness
the number of species in a community.
ie-Count the number of different species in the box.
90
Species Evenness
relative abundances compared with one another.
91
Species Diversity
combines species richness and species evenness (measures community complexity).
92
What does Species Accumulation Curve tell us?
These curves can help determine when most or enough of the species in a community have been observed. (adequately sampled)
93
Primary Challenges to Life on Land (expanded version)
1. Obtaining resources: algae absorbs CO2 and minerals from the water; whole alga performs photosynthesis
2. Maintaining moisture: algae absorbs water from living in the aqueous environment
3. Staying upright: algae is supported and stays buoyant by the surrounding water (or floats in it)
4. Reproduction: algae uses water, which is required for male sperm to reach female egg (and water prevents offspring from drying out)
94
Primary Challenges to Life on Land (short version)
1. Obtaining resources
2. Maintaining moisture
3. Staying upright
4. Reproduction
95
Adaptations of Land Plants
Plant body: obtaining resources, maintaining moisture, and staying upright
- Symbiosis with fungi: mycorrhizae
- Large, compact, multicellular: specialize in a variety of
functions (e.g., leaf)
- Waterproofing: cuticle, 3D plant body, seeds/spores
- Stem support: Led to the evolution of wood
- Root systems: minerals from soil (earliest land plants had a rhizoid that only anchored plant)
2. Life cycles
- Embryo:young plants in a protective structure
- Gamete protection: multicellular structures for protection
- Coordination: gamete provided with moisture
96
Describe the interaction of species in competition.
-/-
| Both do worse when together.
97
competition
resource use by ONE individual that reduces its availability for others.
98
Mutualism
positive/positive
+/+
Both species benefit (do better together).
99
pollination
Act of transferring pollen grains from the male part of a flower to the female part of the flower.
• Required before fertilization to take place (i.e., to create a zygote).
100
antagonist interaction
negative/positive
-/+
One does worse, one does better when together.
101
commensalism
positive/unaffected
+/0
One does better when together; one is unaffected.
102
ammensalism
negative/unaffected
-/0
One does worse when together; one is
unaffected.
103
Describe the species interaction grid
(+/+) (+/-)
Mutualism Antagonism
(-/+) (-/-)
Antagonism Competition
(0/+) (0/-)
Commensalism Ammensalism
104
succession
the change in species composition in communities over time, resulting from both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors.
105
Types of agents of change
* Stress: A factor that reduces the growth or reproduction of individuals (e.g., reduced nutrients, competition).
* Disturbance: An event that injures or kills some individuals and creates opportunities for other individuals (e.g., sufficiently large so intermediate replacement by neighbors is not possible).
• Stressors and disturbances can be abiotic or biotic.
106
What is an agent of change?
During succession, interactions results in the replacement of one species with another.
107
The Paleoecological “Proxy”
Physical, chemical, or biological material preserved within the geologic record.
108
Paleoecological Proxy
preserved materials that can be representative of past climate or the environment
109
The isotopes of carbon are commonly used for dating fossils (younger than ~_________).
50,000 years old
110
Older remains have______Carbon 14 than younger remains
less
111
Older remains have______Carbon 14 than younger remains
less
112
metamorphosis
(change in body plan) during development
113
importance of metamorphosis
allows specialization of...
- immatures specialize in feeding and growth
- adults specialize in dispersal and reproduction
helps insects to be successful
