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ACP Psychology > Final Exam Study Guide > Flashcards

Final Exam Study Guide Flashcards

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1
Q

Charles Darwin

A

Work on Origins of Species. Provided compelling account of evolution and natural selection.

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2
Q

Sigmond Freud

A

Developed a theory of personality called psychoanalysis. Believed human behavior was based on unconscious conflicts.

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3
Q

William James

A

One of Harvord’s most outstanding students became a professor, critical in establishing psych in the US. Inspired by Wundt’s articles. Wrote the leading psychology textbook “Principles of Psychology”. Ideas founded Functionalism.

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4
Q

Abraham Maslow

A

Key component and Advocate of Humanistic Psychology. Developed theory of motivation.

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5
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

Russian experimental neurologist and physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs. Discovered that automatic behavior was triggered by natural stimuli (all behaviors were learned). Influenced by B. F. Skinner, John B. Watson

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6
Q

Carl Rogers

A

Largely founded humanistic psych. Like Freud, he was influenced by his patients. Emphasized self-determination and free will.

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7
Q

Pauline Elizabeth Scarborough

A

Campaigned for the inclusion of women in US psychology history. Explored women’s changing social status.

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8
Q

B.F Skinner

A

After Watson, Skinner took over behaviorism. He believed that Psychology should be studied by the observable and famously used reinforcement (punishments) techniques on rats and pigeons.

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9
Q

Edward B. Tichener

A

One of Wundt’s students who developed Structuralism. After his death, structuralism was over even though it was the first school of thought.

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10
Q

Margaret Floy Washburn

A

First US woman to earn a PhD in Psychology. Edward Tichener’s first doctoral student. Research the inner experiences of different animal species.

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11
Q

John B. Watson

A

He did not believe in Structuralism and advocated heavily for Behaviorism. who played an important role in developing behaviorism. He is remembered for his research on the conditioning process

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12
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

German psychologist is known as the founder of experimental psychology. Studied reaction times.

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13
Q

Psychology

A

Study of behavior and mental processes

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14
Q

Structuralism

A

most complex conscious experiences could be broken down into elemental structures.

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15
Q

Functionalism

A

Emphasized the purpose or function of behavior and mental processes. Founded by the ideas of William James. Did not limit ideas to introspection.

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16
Q

psychoanalysis

A

Personality theory and form of psychotherapy and emphasize the role of unconscious thoughts in determining personality and behavior

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17
Q

Behaviorism

A

The study of observable behaviors especially during learning.

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18
Q

Humanistic Psychology

A

Emphasized each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction.

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19
Q

Neuroscience

A

The study of the nervous system, especially the brain.

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20
Q

Culture

A

Refers to the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people communicated through generations.

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21
Q

Ethnocrentrism

A

Belief that one’s own culture is superior to all others.

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22
Q

Individualistic Cultures

A

Emphasizes needs and goals of an individual over the group.

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23
Q

Psychaitry

A

The medical specialty that focuses on the diagnoses of treatments, causes, and prevention of behavioral disorders.

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24
Q

Scientific Method

A

Set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.

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25
Q

Empirical Evidence

A

Verifiable evidence, that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and experimentation.

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26
Q

Hypothesis

A

A tentative statement that describes the relationship between 2 or more variables.

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27
Q

Variable

A

A factor that can vary or change, in ways that it can measured, observed, and verified.

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28
Q

Operational Definition

A

A precise description of how the variables in a study will be measured, manipulated and changed.

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29
Q

Statistics

A

A branch of math to analyze, summarize, and interpret data they have collected.

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30
Q

Statistically Significant

A

A mathematical indication that the research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance if there truly isn’t anything that can be found.

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31
Q

Effect Size

A

A stat that tells us, in general terms, whether a particular finding is small, medium, or large.

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32
Q

Meta-Analysis

A

A stat technique that involves pooling the effect size of several research studies into a single analysis.

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33
Q

Open Science

A

The use of transparent research practices, including sharing the procedures of a study, the specifics of how the stats were calculated, and the research data.

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34
Q

Replicate

A

To repeat a study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings.

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35
Q

Theory

A

(Model), is a tentative explanation that tries to account for diverse findings on the same topic.

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36
Q

Descriptive Research

A

Research that uses scientific procedures for systematically observing and describing behavior.

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37
Q

Longitudinal Design

A

Research strategy that tracks a particular variable in the same group of participants over time, sometimes for years.

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38
Q

Cross-Sectional Design

A

Research strategy for studying a variable or set of variables among a group of participants at a single point in time.

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39
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

The systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting.

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40
Q

Case Study

A

An intensive, in-depth investigation of an individual, a family, or some other social unit.

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41
Q

Survey

A

A structured set of questions designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, and characteristics of a specific group.

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42
Q

Sample

A

A selected segment of the population is used to represent the group that is being studied.

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43
Q

Representative Sample

A

A selected segment that vert closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.

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44
Q

Random Selection

A

Process by which every member of a larger group has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample.

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45
Q

Correlational Study

A

A study that examines how strongly two variables are related to, or associated with each other.

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46
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

A numerical indicator of the strength of the relationship (correlation), between two variables.

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47
Q

Positive Correlation

A

A finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction, that is, increasing or decreasing together.

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48
Q

Negative Correlation

A

A finding in which the two variables move in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases.

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49
Q

Experimental Research

A

A method of investigation used to demonstrate the cause-and-effect relationship by purposefully manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another variable.

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50
Q

Independent Variable

A

A factor that is purposefully manipulated to produce a change in an experiment; is also called the predictor variable.

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51
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment; also called the outcome variable.

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52
Q

Confounding Variables

A

Extraneous variables that are not the focus of the experiment but could effect the outcome of an experiment.

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53
Q

Random Assignment

A

The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions so that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study.

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54
Q

Experimental Group

A

Group of participants who are all exposed to all experimental conditions, including treatment condition of the independent variable; also called experimental condition.

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55
Q

Control Group

A

Group of participants exposed to the control of the independent variable; also called the control condition.

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56
Q

Testing Effect

A

The finding is that practicing retrieval of information from memory produces better retention than restudying the same information for an equal amount of time.

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57
Q

Double-Blind Technique

A

An experimental control in which both the participants and the researchers are “blind” or unaware of the treatment or condition to which the participants have been assigned.

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58
Q

Demand Charactaristic

A

In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researchers communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant.

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59
Q

Placebo

A

A fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects.

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60
Q

Placebo Effect

A

Any change to a person’s beliefs and expectations rather than to an actual drug, treatment, or procedure.

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61
Q

Natural Experiment

A

A study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants.

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62
Q

Critical Thinking

A

Actively questioning statements rather than blindly accepting them.

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63
Q

Comparative Psychology

A

The branch of psychology that studies the behavior of non-human animals.

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64
Q

Pierre Pauul Broca

A

Confirmed that some language functions were localized to the left frontal lobe.

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65
Q

Roger Sperry

A

Gathered patients who had their brains split in half.

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66
Q

Karl Wernickle

A

Discovered that when an area of the left hemisphere was injured a different type of language disturbace would appear. Spoken and written

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67
Q

Biological Psychology

A

The scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes.

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68
Q

Neurons

A

Cells that are highly specialized to receive and transmit information from one part of the body to another.

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69
Q

Sensory Neuron

A

type of neuron that conveys information about the environment, such as light or sound, from specialized receptor cells in the sense organs to the brain.

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70
Q

Motor Neuron

A

type of neuron that communicates information from the muscles and glands of the body.

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71
Q

Interneuron

A

type of neuron that communicates information between neurons

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72
Q

Cell Body

A

The part of the neuron that contains structures that process nutrients providing the energy the neuron needs to functions

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73
Q

Dendrites

A

The part of the neuron that receives messages from other neurons.

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74
Q

Axon

A

Part of the neuron that carries information from the neuron to other cells in the body, including other neurons, glands, and muscles

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75
Q

Glial Cell

A

Cells that provide structural and functional support for neurons throughout the nervous system

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76
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

a white, fatty, covering wrapped around the axons of some, but not all neurons in the brain

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77
Q

Stimulus threshold

A

The minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron

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78
Q

action potential

A

a brief electrical impulse that transmits information along the axon of a neuron

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79
Q

resting potential

A

the state in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if it receives sufficient stimulation.

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80
Q

synapse

A

The point of communication between 2 neurons

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81
Q

synaptic gap

A

a tiny fluid filled space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

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82
Q

axon terminals

A

small branches at the end of the axon

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83
Q

synaptic vesicles

A

Tiny sacs in the axon terminal
store and release neurotransmitters at the synapse

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84
Q

neurotransmitters

A

chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron

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85
Q

synaptic transmission

A

the entire process of transmitting information at the synapse

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86
Q

reuptake

A

the process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from the receptor and are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron so they can be recycled and used again.

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87
Q

acetlycholine

A

chemical means by which neurons communicate with the muscles : learning, memory, muscle contraction

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88
Q

dopamine

A

involved in movement, attention, learning and pleasurable rewarding sensations

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89
Q

serotinin

A

involved in sleep, sensory perceptions, mood, and emotional state.

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90
Q

norepinephrine

A

Physical arousal, learning, memory, regulation of sleep. Helps body gear up in the face of danger.

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91
Q

glutamine

A

excitatory messages

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92
Q

GABA

A

inhibitory messages

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93
Q

endorphines

A

pain perception, positive emotions

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94
Q

nervous system

A

system of 1 trillion linked neurons throughout the body in complex organized communication network

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95
Q

nerves

A

large bundles of neuron axons that carry information in the peripheral nervous system

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96
Q

central nervous system (CNS)

A

division of the nervous system consisting of spinal cord and brain

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97
Q

spinal reflexes

A

simple, automatic, behaviors that occur without any brain involvement

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98
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

includes the nerves lying outside of the CNS

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99
Q

somatic nervous system

A

communicates sensory information received by sensory receptors along sensory nerves to the CNS

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100
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

regulates involuntary functions like heartbeat, blood pressure breathing and digestion

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101
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

bodys emergency system, rapidly activating bodily systems to meet the needs of threats

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102
Q

endocrine system

A

system of glands located throughout the body, secrete hormes into the bloodstream

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103
Q

hormones

A

chemical messengers secreted into primarily the blood stream

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104
Q

hypothalamus

A

complex structure just beneath the thalamus. Direct link between the endocrine system and the nervous system via the pituitary gland

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105
Q

pituitary gland

A

pea-sized gland just under the brain that regulates body production of other hormones by many of the glands in the endocrine system.

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106
Q

oxytocin

A

hormone invovled in reproduction social motivation and social behavior that is produced by the hypothalamus and released through pituitary gland

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107
Q

adrenal glands

A

pair of endocrine glands that produce hormones involved in the human response and play a key role in the fight or flight response

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108
Q

functional plasticity

A

the brains ability to shift functions from damaged to undamaged brain areas

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109
Q

structural plasticity

A

the brain’s ability to change its physical structure in response to learning active practice or environmental influences

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110
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

image technique used that produces highly detailed images of the bodies structures and tissues =, using electromagnetic signals generated by the body in response to magnetic fields

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111
Q

diffusion MRI (dMRI)

A

maps neural connections in the brain by tracking the movement of eater molecules along myelinated axones

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112
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

color-coded images of brain activity by tracking the brain use of a radioactively tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug.

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113
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

uses magnetic feilds to map brain activity by measuring changes to the brains blood flow and oxygen levels

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114
Q

neurogenisis

A

the development of new neurons

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115
Q

brianstem

A

A region of the brain made up of the hindbrain and midbrain

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116
Q

hindbrain

A

at the base of the brain containing several structures that regulate basic life functions

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117
Q

medulla

A

hindbrain structure that controls vital life functions

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118
Q

pons

A

hindbrain structure that connects the medulla and two sides of the cerebellum and helps coordinate and integrate movements on each side of the body.

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119
Q

cerebellum

A

large 2 sided, hindbrain structure at the back of the brain that is responsible for muscle coordination and equilibrium

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120
Q

reticular formation

A

network of nerve fibers located in the center of the medulla that helps regulate attention arousal and sleep.

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121
Q

midbrian

A

relay station that contains centers involved in the processing of auditory and visual sensory info

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122
Q

forebrain

A

largest most complex, contains centers for complex behaviors and mental processes, also called cerebrum

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123
Q

limbic system

A

group of forebrain structures that form a border around the brainstem and involved in emotion, motivation learning and memory

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124
Q

hippocampus

A

large forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and embedded in the temporal lobe in each cerebral hemisphere.

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125
Q

thalamus

A

rounded forebrain structure located within each cerebral hemisphere that process sensory info except smell.

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126
Q

amygdala

A

almond-shaped cluster of neurons at the base of the temporal lobe. - involved in emotions

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127
Q

cerebral cortex

A

wrinkled outer portions of the forebrian. contains most complex brain centers.

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128
Q

cerebral hemispheres

A

nearly symmetrical left and right halve of the cerebral cortex.

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129
Q

corpus callosum

A

thick band of axons that connects 2 cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them

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130
Q

occipital lobe

A

area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that is the primary receiving area for visual info

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131
Q

parietal lobe

A

area of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex located above the temporal lobe that processes body sensations.

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132
Q

temporal lobe

A

an area on each hemi of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving center for auditory info.

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133
Q

frontal lobe

A

largest lobe. processes voluntary muscle movement and involved in thinking planning and emotional control.

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134
Q

cortical localization

A

idea that particular brain area are associated with specific functions

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135
Q

aphasia

A

the partial or complete inability to articulate ideas understand spoken language or written because of brain injury or damage

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136
Q

Broca’s area

A

brain region of the frontal lobe of the dominant hemi usually the left, that is crucial for speech production

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137
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

left temporal lobe of dominant hemi crucial for language.

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138
Q

lateralization of function

A

notion that specific functions are processed primary on one side of the brain

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139
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

conserves and maintains physical resources

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140
Q

Sensation

A

The process of detecting a sound, physical stimulus, such as light, sound, heat or pressure

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141
Q

Perception

A

The process of integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensations

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142
Q

Sensory Receptors

A

Specialized cells unique to each organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulation.

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143
Q

Absolute Threshold

A

The smallest possible strength of a stimulus that can be detected half the time.

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144
Q

Transduction

A

The process by which physical energy is converted into a coded neural signal that can be processed by the nervous system.

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145
Q

Difference Threshold

A

The smallest possible difference between 2 stimuli that can be detected half the time. Also called “Noticeable Difference”.

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146
Q

sensory adaptation

A

The gradual decline in sensitivity ti a constant stimulus.

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147
Q

Wavelength

A

the distance from one wave peak to another

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148
Q

Pupul

A

The opening in the middle of the iris that changes size to let in different amounts of light

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149
Q

Lens

A

A transparent structure located behind the pupil that actively focuses or bends light as it enters the eye.

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150
Q

Accommodation

A

the process by which the lens changes shape to focus incoming light falls into the retina

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151
Q

retina

A

a thin light-sensitive membrane located at the back of the eye which contains the sensory receptors for vision

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152
Q

rods

A

the long thin blunt sensory receptor of the eye that are highly sensitive to light but not color

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153
Q

cones

A

a short thick pointed sensory receptor of the eye that detects color

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154
Q

fovea

A

a small area of the center of the retina composed entirely of cones, where visual info is most sharply focused

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155
Q

blind spot

A

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, producing a small gap in the field of vision

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156
Q

optic nerve

A

the thick nerve that exits from the back of the eye and carries visual info to the visual cortex in the brain

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157
Q

optic chiasm

A

the point in the brain where the optic nerve fibers from each eye meet and partly cross over the opposite side of the brain

158
Q

trichromatic theory of color vision

A

theory that the sensation of color results because cones are especially sensitive to red light, green light, or blue light.

159
Q

opponent process theory of color vision

A

Color vision is the product of opposing pairs of color receptors. (Red-green) (Blue-yellow) (Black white). When one is stimulated the other is inhibited.

160
Q

audition

A

Term for sense of hearing

161
Q

pitch

A

relative high or lowness of a sound, determined by the frequency of a sound wave.

162
Q

frequency

A

rate of vibration or number of sound waves per second

163
Q

outer ear

A

part of the ear that collects all of the sound waves, includes the pinna the ear canal and the ear drum

164
Q

middle ear

A

the part of the ear that amplifies sound wave consisting of the hammer, anvil, and stirrup.

165
Q

cochlea

A

The coiled fluid-filled inner ear structure that contains basilar membrane and hair cells

166
Q

basilar membrane

A

Membrane within the cochlea of the ear containing hair cells

167
Q

hair cells

A

sensory receptors for sound which are embedded in the basilar membrane

168
Q

frequency theory

A

view that basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound

169
Q

olfaction

A

sense of smell

170
Q

gustation

A

sense of taste

171
Q

pheromones

A

chemical signals that have evolved for communication with other members of the same species called chemosignals

172
Q

olfactory bulb

A

enlarged ending of the olfactory cortex at the front of the brain where sensation of smell is registered

173
Q

taste buds

A

sensory receptors for taste

174
Q

pain

A

unpleasant sensory emotion associated with body harm

175
Q

gate control theory of pain

A

the theory that physiological and psychological factors cause spinal gates to open and relay to the brain patterns of stimulation that are perceived as pain

176
Q

proprioception

A

sense of body movement and position

177
Q

ESP (extrasensory perception)

A

perception of info caused by means other than through the normal process of sensation

178
Q

parapsychology

A

investigation of claims of paranormal phenomena and abilites

179
Q

bottom-up processing

A

Emphasizes sensory receptors in detecting the basic features of a stimulus. Attention focuses on the parts of the pattern before moving the whole.

180
Q

top-down processing

A

Emphasizes the observer’s experiences in arriving at the meaningful perceptions. Attention moves from the whole to the part of the pattern.

181
Q

gestalt psych

A

sensations are actively processed according to consistent perceptual rules, producing meaningful whole perceptions or gestalts.
-It focuses on the dynamic organization of experience into patterns or configurations, and emphasizes that the whole of something is greater than its parts.

182
Q

figure-ground relationship

A

gestalt principle states that perception is automatically separated into the figure, which is the main element of the scene, and the ground, which is its background.

183
Q

depth perception

A

The use of visual cues to perceive the distance of the three-dimensional characteristics of an object.

184
Q

monocular cues

A

Distance or depth cues that can be processed by either eye alone

185
Q

binocular cues

A

Distance or depth cues that can be processed by either eye alone

186
Q

perceptual constancy

A

the tendency to perceive objects, especially familiar objects, as constant and unchanging despite changes in sensory input

187
Q

size constancy

A

The perception that a familiar object remains the same size regardless of the image produced on our retinas

188
Q

shape constancy

A

The perception that a familiar object remains the same shape regardless of the image produced on our retinas

189
Q

perceptual illusion

A

The misperception of the true characteristic of an object or an image

190
Q

Müller-Lyer illusion

A

a famous visual illusion involving the misperception of the identical length of two lines, one with arrows pointed inward and one with arrows pointed outward

191
Q

moon illusion

A

a visual illusion involving the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead.

192
Q

perceptual set

A

the tendency to perceive objects or situations from a particular frame of reference

193
Q

Inner ear

A

Part of the ear where sound is transduced into neural impulses. consists of cochlea and semicircular canals

194
Q

place theory

A

different frequencies cause larger vibrations at different locations along the basilar membrane

195
Q

Myopia

A

Nearsighted (distant)

196
Q

Presbiopia

A

Farsighted (nearby)

197
Q

Cataract

A

Tissue in lens becomes cloudy

198
Q

Astigmatism

A

Irregular shape of eyeball

199
Q

Nociceptors

A

React to skin temp and strong pressure. Skin temp full below 59 degrees and above 113 degrees.

200
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Contain cold & warm fiber. Cold fibers are 30:1 warm receptors. Cold fibers react less than 86 and warm fibers more than 96.

201
Q

Law of Pragnons

A

The brain seeks simple, efficient solution to a stim (law of simplicity)

202
Q

A-Beta fibers

A

Fast pain system thalamus->thalamus->sensory cortex. Sharp intense short-lived pain.

203
Q

C Fibers

A

Slow pain system, hypo & thalamus -> limbic system (Amygdala) lost lasting throbbing burning pain

204
Q

motion paralax

A

While moving, objects appear to be moving in the opposite direction

205
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

detectors that can sense pressure, vibration, and other physical changes

206
Q

webber’s law

A

explain how we perceive differences in things like weight, brightness, or sound. It tells us that the noticeable change depends on the starting point or intensity of the stimulus.

207
Q

volley theory

A

how groups of neurons work together to transmit signals quickly

208
Q

vestibular sacs

A

maintain balance and body equalibrium

209
Q

Akinetopsia

A

motion blindness

210
Q

Capgras Delusion

A

false belief that an identical duplicate has replaced someone significant to the patient

211
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

a condition where you have difficulty recognising people’s faces

212
Q

Synesthesia

A

Synesthesia is a neurological
condition that causes one sense to be experienced through another

213
Q

mcgurk effect

A

The illusion occurs because what you are seeing clashes with what you are hearing. Your brain comes up with some third thing that it believes true reality to be. This is called the mcgurk-a-thon

214
Q

Consciousness

A

personal awareness of mental activities, internal sensations, and external environment. (William James described as stream or river)

215
Q

What is waking Consciousness

A

conscious awareness

216
Q

What is attention

A

the capacity to selectively focus awareness on particular stimuli in your external environment or on your internal thoughts or sensations

217
Q

limitations of attention affect human thought and behavior?

A

-Attention has limited capacity: we cannot pay attention to every sound, sight, and other sensations in the external environment.
Attention is selective: “cocktail party effect” being able to focus your attention on a particular stimulus.
Attention can be blind: missing obvious stimuli in our field of vision or hearing.

218
Q

Inattentional Blindness

A

Simply not noticing a significant object or event that occurs in our clear field of vision. Commonly exploited by magicians

219
Q

Change blindness

A

Also very common. Refers to not noticing when something changes, such as when a friend gets a haircut or shaves his beard.

220
Q

What really happens when we think we are multitasking?

A

The myth of multi-tasking refers to the division of attention during such events. Attention is divided up among each task receiving less attention than it normally would.

221
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

a roughly 24-hour cycle of fluctuations in biological and psychological processes.
Env Cues: Bright light regulates sleep cycle.
Bio cues: light, signals CNS and hypothalamus

222
Q

Infradian Rhythm

A

A period longer than the Circadian rhythm. Seasonal: hibernation, migration, menstruation cycle

223
Q

Ultradian Rhythm

A

Shorter than Circadian. Sleep stages as we cycle through a night’s sleep. (Regular oscillating)

224
Q

suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

(Bodies master clock) regulates most circadian rhythms in the body. Located in a tiny region of the hypothalamus. t interprets light information, translates it into physiological signals

225
Q

Relation between your eyes, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the pineal gland, the hormone melatonin and your circadian rhythm.

A
  1. Eyes detect lack of light
  2. The retina sends signals about the light levels to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain via the optic nerve.
  3. decreased available light is detected by the hypothalamus
  4. triggers the production of melatonin by the pineal gland
226
Q

What effect does daylight saving time and/or travel across multiple time zones have on your circadian
rhythm?

A

Disruption of the biological clock can cause physical and mental fatigue, confusion problems concentrating, depression, or irritability.

227
Q

What is the mechanism by which we study brain activity while subjects are sleeping?

A

Electroencephalograph (EEG). Interment that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure and record the brain’s rythmic electrical activity.

228
Q

In what order does the sleep cycle

A

NREM 1,2,3, REM -> NREM 2,3, REM

229
Q

REM vs NREM sleep cycles

A

REM sleep: rapid eye movement typically where dreaming occurs and voluntary muscle movement is suppressed.
NREM: non rapid eye movement, typically quiet and dreamless, (divided into 3 stages)

230
Q

NREM 1

A

alpha->theta waves, Hypnogogic Hallucinations, Myoclonic jerks, (simple dreams)

231
Q

NREM 2

A

Theta waves (beginning of delta waves), Sleep spindles, K complexes,(less vivid short intense dreams)

232
Q

NREM 3

A

Delta Waves (large slow), deep sleep (sleep talking, walking, eating, etc.). (Few to no sleep)

233
Q

REM

A

Beta waves (fast active), dreaming stage, physio arousal, no voluntary muscle movement, sleep mentation

234
Q

Theta wave

A

NREM 1,2 (light sleep)

235
Q

Beta wave

A

REM,occur during most awake activities,

236
Q

Delta Wave

A

NREM 3 deep sleep

237
Q

Sleep Spindles

A

Editing memory of the day (NREM 2), sharp peaks in quick seccession.

238
Q

K Complexes

A

Save memory into long term(NREM 2), low to very high peak

239
Q

alpha wave

A

NREM 1, (relaxed and sleepy)

240
Q

sleep mentation

A

All thoughts, feelings, and brain activity during sleep

The imagery and thinking experienced during sleep

241
Q

Sleep Depravation Causes…

A

Disruption in mood, mental abilities, reaction time, perceptual skills, and complex motor skills.

242
Q

Activation Synthesis model of dreaming

A

The brainstem produces signals for dream images (activation), the the higher regions of the brain (visual, motor, auditory pathways, hippocampus, and amygdala) impose meaning on the dream images forming stories.

243
Q

neurocognitive model of dreaming

A

Contrasts ASM of dreaming, claims dreams reflect our interests, personality, and individual worries (mirroring our waking concerns). Explains all forms of spontaneous thought

244
Q

Lucid Dreaming

A

Being aware you are dreaming while you are sleep, dreams feel vivid and real.
-Caused by activation in the prefrontal cortex; responsible for self-awareness and reflection

245
Q

psychoanalytic theory of dreams

A

Freud believed that the latent content of a dream is often related to unconscious desires, wishes, and conflicts.
These are thoughts and feelings that are so troubling or unacceptable that the conscious mind represses them.

246
Q

dyssomnias

A

Affect duration and quality of sleep

247
Q

parasomnias

A

undesirable physical arousal, behaviors, or events during sleep, (sleepwalking, sleep terrors, sleep sex, and eating disorders)

248
Q

insomnia

A

inability to regularly fall asleep, stay asleep, or feel rested

249
Q

narcolepsy

A

excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses of sleep episodes throughout the day

250
Q

sleep terrors

A

episode of increased physio arousal, panic, frightening hallucinations (Night terrors)

251
Q

sleep apnea

A

a potentially serious sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts

252
Q

exploding head syndrome

A

parasomnia. It is the sensation of hearing a loud sound during sleep-wake/wake-sleep transitions

253
Q

sleep walking (somnambulism)

A

NREM 3

254
Q

Hypnosis

A

cooperative in which person responds to hypnotic suggestions with changes in perception, memory, thoughts and behaviors

255
Q

What can hypnosis do

A

-detachment from bodies, profound relaxation, sensations of timelessness. post hpynotic suggestion amnesia
-sensory changes include hallucinations, temporary blindness, complete loss of specific sensation,

256
Q

What canT hypnosis do

A

Change memories/do something against your morals

257
Q

Focused Attention Technique

A

focusing awareness on a specific visual image, object, sound, word, or phrase (mantra).
-benefits:improving concentration, reducing stress, and promoting emotional wellbeing

258
Q

Open monitoring technique

A

experience from moment to moment, rather than focusing on a stimulus. Open state of mind, non-reflective awareness
-benefits: stress relief, better thinking, increased emotional intelligence, and the ability to overcome mental biases

259
Q

alcohol

A

Depressant, changes in brain circuits involved in cognition, motivation, and self control

260
Q

nicotine

A

potent addictive stim found in smokeless tobacco.

261
Q

caffiene

A

stim that promotes wakefulness, mental alertness, and faster thought processes. Blocks adenosine receptors to the brain

262
Q

marijuana

A

psychedelic drug: sensory distortions, well-being, mild euphoria, enhanced senses

263
Q

cocaine

A

illegal stim from the coca plant. Produces intense euphoria, mental alertness, and self-confidence.
-Blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine increasing their effects

264
Q

depressants

A

drugs that depress, or inhibit brain activity
ex. alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers

265
Q

stimulants

A

drugs that stimulate or excite brain activity
ex. caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine

266
Q

Psychedelics/hallucinogens

A

drugs that distort sensory perception
ex. Mescaline (cactus), LSD

267
Q

Opioids

A

pain-relieving psychoactive drug
ex. morphine, heroin

268
Q

methamphetamine

A

easily manufactured, intense longer lasting high and less expensive than cocaine. Causes extensive neurological damage

269
Q

Designer Club Drugs

A

Manufactured drugs commonly used in clubs
ex. ecstasy (stim and mild psyched) and dissociative anesthetics

270
Q

How to overcome insomnia and improve sleep

A

monitor stim intake, quiet bedtime routine, condition for restful sleep, consistent sleep-wake schedule

271
Q

What three characteristics are associated with motivation?

A

activation(initiating)
persistence(continued efforts)
intensity(vigor)

272
Q

Instinct theory

A

Certain human programming is innate due to evolutionary programming. Human behavior is based upon thousands of evolutionary instinct

273
Q

Incentive Theories

A

behavior is motivated by the pull of external goals such as rewards

274
Q

Arousal Theory

A

people are motivated by a level of arousal not to high or low

275
Q

Humanistic Theory

A

people are motivated to realize their person potential

276
Q

drive theory

A

Replaced instinct theory, motivated by the desire to reduce unmet biological needs. Push and drive towards thirst and hunger.

277
Q

basal metabolic rate

A

rate of energy consumption to maintain vital body weight

278
Q

insulin

A

controls blood glucose levels and uptake, regulates eating

279
Q

leptin

A

hormone secreted by adipose tissue(fat), regulates hunger and eating

280
Q

ghrelin

A

hormone causing hunger

281
Q

neuropeptide Y (NPY)

A

neurotransmitter released by the hypothalamus that promotes eating. weight loss promotes release of NPY

282
Q

cholecystokinin (CCK)

A

hormone found in the small intestine that enhances stretch receptor

283
Q

sensory specific satiety

A

a decrease in the pleasantness of a specific food that has just been eaten to satiation

284
Q

set-point theory

A

humans have a set natural body weight that the body tries to maintain

285
Q

Self-Determination Theory

A

Proposed by Deci and Ryan, said that 3 needs must be met to reach optimal human functioning
-autonomy: control over your choices
-competence: need to learn and master challenging tasks
-relatedness: sense of belonging

286
Q

Achievement Motivation

A

Directing behavior towards excelling or succeeding
-measured with various areas of success including good grades, job performance or worker output.

287
Q

How does culture affect achievement motivation

A

Individualistic cultures tend to focus on individual accomplishment, usually a competitive task. Collectivistic cultures have a different view where achievement is motivated by the benefits to a larger group.

288
Q

What is the difference between achievement and competence motivation?

A

Mastery goals are focused on learning to do something well, while performance goals is simply showing others you can do it. (Fixed vs Growth mindset)

289
Q

Brain’s fear circuit

A
  1. Information arrives at the thalamus (info relay)
  2. Crude info travels directly to the amygdala causes almost instant fear repsonse
  3. detailed information goes to the visual cortex where it is interpreted
290
Q

Emotional Experience in the brain

A

amygdala: important in fear response
hippocampus: memory and emotional learning, ties emotion to past experience
Limbic Cortex: influences mood, motivation, and judgment

291
Q

How does the evolutionary perspective explain the dual brain pathways for transmitting fear-related information

A

fast track: amygdala triggers fight or flight response
slow track: thalamus and cortex take an analytical approach forming a complex solution

292
Q

Components of emotion

A

Cognitive: what you think
physical: how you body feels (body reaction)
behavioral: urge to do (instead of thinking)

293
Q

what functions do emotions serve

A

Prepare the Body for Immediate Action:
When triggered, emotions orchestrate systems such as perception, attention, inference, learning, memory, goal choice, motivational priorities, physiological reactions, motor behaviors, and behavioral decision-making

294
Q

What evidence supports the idea that facial expressions for basic emotions are universal?

A

Paul Eckman’s research showed that humans were able to identify each emotion
-and blind and deaf babies still show emotion

295
Q

How does culture affect the behavioral expression of emotion? (Specifically, emblems and display rules)

A

Across almost all cultures expression is universal except slight differences called dialects.
-emblems like nodding head yes and no mean different things across the world
-Display rules govern your facial expression in different situations

296
Q

James-Lange Theory of emotion

A

The response comes before the emotion
-criticized because physiological does not mean there is an emotional response (ex. heart rate)

297
Q

Cannon bard Theory of emotion

A

The physiological response happens simultaneously

298
Q

Schacter-Singer Two-Factor theory of emotion

A

Agreed that physio response is essential but also maintained that arousal is similar for different emotions.
-We label cognitive arousal as a specific emotion given our interpretation of the situation. Thus our interaction between physio arousal and cognitive label explains state

299
Q

Self- Efficacy

A

degree to which people are convinced about their own ability to meet demands of a situation

300
Q

Implementation: Steps to Turn goals into actions

A
  1. Form a goal intention (specific goal)
  2. Create implementation intentions(specific plan)
301
Q

Mental Rehearsal

A

Mental images heavily affect self-efficacy and self-control during situations.

302
Q

hypnogogic hallucinations

A

-hallucinations that happen as you’re falling asleep
-A hallucination is a false perception of objects or events involving your senses: sight, sound, smell, touch and taste.

303
Q

What is conditioning

A

Learning, the process of training or accustoming a person or animal to behave in a certain way or to accept certain circumstances.

304
Q

What are the 3 types of conditioning

A

Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and observational learning

305
Q

How did Pavlov discover and investigate classical conditioning??

A

used dogs to study the production of saliva through the bell

  • associated the natural response of food to the bell
    -creating a CS
306
Q

Why is classical conditioning sometimes referred to associative learning?

A

it involves forming associations between different stimuli and behaviors. This type of learning is based on the principle that certain responses can be conditioned (or learned) when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with another stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a response.

307
Q

Acquisition Phase (& pavlovian example)

A

repeating paring of pairings until subject forms a mental association

bell + food= salivate… continued pairing of bell to food causes conditioned stim and CR

308
Q

dentify; the neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response.

A

neutral stimulus: has no reflexive effect/response
unconditioned stimulus/response: naturally occurring stimulus that elicits an automatic, reflexive response
conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response: conditioned stimulus alone can elicit the response that previously required the unconditioned stimulus

309
Q

Interstim Interval

A

Period of time between stim. Effects how well and quickly an association is learned

310
Q

stimulus discrimination

A

Responding differently to similar but different stims. (occurs when one stim elicits the CR but another similar stim does not)
Ex. Different models of car

311
Q

Stim Generalization

A

responding the same way to similar but different stimuli (when a new stim that is similar to the CS but another elicits the same CR)
Ex. A dog is conditioned to drool when it hears a clicking noise. The dog may also drool when it hears similar sounds, like tapping and beeping noises

312
Q

Higher Order Conditioning

A

Occurs when an established CS functions as UCS in a new conditioning trial

Ex. Painful injection (UCS) made baby cry (UCR). soon develops conditioned response in which the sight of a doctors jacket (CS) triggered crying (CR)

313
Q

extinction

A

gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior
ex. ticking was consistently presented without food the response would gradually disapear

314
Q

spontaneuos recovery

A

reappearance of previously extinguished CR after a period of time without exposure to the CS

315
Q

shaping

A

Shaping is a behavioral modification technique that involves reinforcing behaviors that are closer to a desired outcome. It’s a form of operant conditioning.
ex.when a baby or a toddler learns to walk. They are reinforced for crawling, then standing, then taking one step, then taking a few steps, and finally for walking

316
Q

Relationship between pavlov and watson

A

Watson took Pavlov’s theories about animals and applied them to humans, arguing that the principles of classical conditioning could explain not just simple behaviors (like salivation in dogs) but complex human behaviors and emotional reactions.

317
Q

Rescorla

A

Proposed Classical involves learinng relationships between events. 20 tones followed by 20 shocks.

318
Q

Darwin

A

Darwin’s work provides a broader evolutionary context that helps explain why certain conditioned responses may have evolved due to their adaptive value in natural environments

319
Q

öhman & Mineka

A

They have demonstrated through their research how some fears are more easily acquired due to evolutionary predispositions.

320
Q

John Garcia

A

Discovered associations are more common when they are biologically prepared, ie taste aversions

321
Q

Thorndike’s Law of Effect (how did it affect skinners ideas)

A

Behaviors followed by bad results are less likely to occur and behaviors followed by good results are more likely to occur again (influenced the skinner box)
-Behavioral Consequence,Refinement and Systematization,Experimental Rigor,Theory Expansion

322
Q

positive and negative reinforcement

A

POS: addition of rein stim strengthening an operant response
NEG: removal of averse stim strengthen an operant

323
Q

Pos and neg punishment

A

POS: add of a punishing stim weakening an operant response
NEG: removal of a rein stim weakens an operant response

324
Q

What is the difference between a primary reinforcer and a
conditioned (secondary) reinforcer?

A

primary reinforcers are biological stimuli
that are essential for survival. Secondary reinforcers, also known as conditioned reinforcers, are learned stimuli that are used to obtain primary reinforcers.

325
Q

how are behaviors affected in the skinner box and in everyday life

A

positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated
-Reinforcement Schedules,Behavior Modification,Habit Formation,Product Design and Marketing

326
Q

continuous reinforcement, partial reinforcement and accidental

A

C: specififc/targeted constant during beginning stages of association
P: uses 4 schedules, involves only occasional reinforcement of a behavior

327
Q

fixed ratio

A

A reward is given after a set number of responses.
Strengths:

Encourages a high response rate due to the clear link between behavior and reinforcement.
Weaknesses:
May lead to a pause in response after reinforcement, reducing overall effectiveness.

328
Q

variable ratio

A

Rewards are given after an unpredictable number of responses, which tends to create a high and steady rate of response.
Strengths:

Generates a high and consistent rate of responding, as reinforcement might follow any response.
Weaknesses:
Can encourage continuous, potentially compulsive behavior with little respite, similar to gambling.

329
Q

fixed interval

A

Rewards are provided after a fixed amount of time, as long as the desired behavior occurs within that interval.
Strengths:
Provides consistent and predictable reinforcement intervals, easing the understanding of reward timing.
Weaknesses:
Often results in a “scallop” effect, where response rates increase only as the next reinforcement time approaches, then drop.

330
Q

variable interval

A

Rewards are given after variable amounts of time, following the first occurrence of the behavior after the time has elapsed.
Strengths:

Produces a moderate and steady rate of response, making it highly resistant to extinction.
Weaknesses:
Can lead to frustration or disengagement due to the unpredictability and perceived sparsity of reinforcements.

331
Q

Edward C Tolman

A

Believed opposite of thorndike and skinner; cognitive processes play an important role in learning of complex behaviors (cognitive maps and latent learning)
-did experiment with rats:group with food incentive first round knew the map more than the group without food

332
Q

Cognitive maps

A

mental representation of a familar layout of an enviorment

333
Q

Latent learning

A

occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available

334
Q

Martin Seligmin

A

research on the theory of learned helplessness. “Learned helplessness is a term specifying an organism learning to accept and endure unpleasant stimuli, and unwilling to avoid them, even when it is avoidable.”
-Group Two Dogs: The dogs that had experienced uncontrollable shocks did not try to escape; they passively endured the shocks, demonstrating what Seligman termed “learned helplessness.” These dogs had learned from the first phase of the experiment that nothing they did had any effect on the shocks, leading them to give up in the second phase, even though escape was possible.

335
Q

Keller and Marian Breland

A

the tendency of an animal to revert to unconscious and automatic behaviour that interferes with learned behaviour from operant conditioning. Instinctive drift was coined by Keller and Marian Breland, former students of B.F.
-The Brelands realized that this wasn’t an isolated incident but a pattern seen across different species. They noticed that trained behaviors could degrade into instinctual behaviors, particularly when those behaviors were somewhat related to the trained tasks. This observation led them to coin the term “instinctive drift.”

336
Q

reinforcement: avoidance and escape

A
  1. Reinforcement by Escape
    Escape reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that is already present. The behavior is negatively reinforced because it allows the individual to escape from the unpleasant situation.

Example: Turning off a loud alarm that rings every morning serves as an escape from the noise. If pressing a button stops the alarm, you will likely press the button again in the future to escape the unpleasant sound.

  1. Reinforcement by Avoidance
    Avoidance reinforcement occurs when a behavior prevents the occurrence of an aversive stimulus before it starts. The behavior is negatively reinforced because it allows the individual to avoid the unpleasant situation altogether.

Example: If you take an alternate route to work to avoid heavy traffic, your behavior of taking that route is reinforced because you avoid the stress of being stuck in traffic.

337
Q

Albert Bandura

A

Albert Bandura, a prominent psychologist, demonstrated the principles of observational learning most famously through his Bobo doll experiment conducted in the early 1960s.
- Children who had observed the aggressive model were significantly more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior towards the Bobo doll themselves, mimicking the actions and words of the adult model. Those who observed the non-aggressive model showed significantly less aggression, and the control group fell in between.

338
Q

Mirror Neuron

A

Def:a type of brain cell that respond when a person performs an action or observes someone else performing the same action
How it improves self control: mirror others emotional responses

339
Q

discriminative stimulus.

A

A discriminative stimulus is a cue or signal that indicates the availability of reinforcement or punishment following a particular behavior

340
Q

What is memory

A

The mental processes that enable you to encode, retain, and retrieve information over time.

341
Q

Encoding

A

you should know this

342
Q

Storage

A

NAME?

343
Q

Retrieval

A

-the process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it
-A smell can act as a reminder of a favourite childhood meal; a song on the radio can trigger a memory from a special occasion

344
Q

How does the stage model of memory explain memory process?

A

-Explains the basic workings of memory. Based on the idea info is transferred from one stage to another
-Sensory memory->short term->long term

345
Q

How does Atticison Schiffrin’s Adapted 3-stage model of memory explain the memory process?

A

AKA working memory uses tools from long-term unconscious processing to bypass the stage model
-working memory - Unlike short-term memory, which passively holds information for a brief period, working memory allows us to actively manipulate and process information for a short duration (typically seconds). emphasized by rehearsal

346
Q

How does Alan Baddley’s Expanded Model model of memory explain the memory process?

A

How it Works:

  1. Information enters through our senses or is retrieved from long-term memory.
  2. Central Executive allocates attention to relevant information.
    Information is processed within the slave systems:
  3. Verbal information goes to the phonological loop for rehearsal.
    Visual and spatial information are handled by the visuospatial sketchpad.
  4. Central Executive integrates information from the slave systems and long-term memory through the episodic buffer (if included in the model).
  5. Manipulated information is used for various cognitive tasks like reasoning, problem-solving, and following instructions.
  6. Information not actively maintained fades away or is potentially transferred to long-term memory through encoding processes.
347
Q

How does the Single Connection model of memory explain the memory process?

A

The Single Connection Model proposes that memories are formed through a single connection between specific neurons. The strength of this connection determines the memory’s strength and the likelihood of recall.

348
Q

How does McLelland’s theory of Parallel Distributed Processing explain the memory process?

A

Explains how memories can be interconnected and influence each other.

Accounts for how partial cues or similar experiences can trigger memory retrieval.

Simulates some aspects of human memory, like forgetting due to weakened connections or interference from similar memories due to overlapping activation patterns

349
Q

What are the differences between recognition and recall?

A

Recognition: Involves identifying something familiar from among multiple choices.
Recall: Involves retrieving information from memory without any prompts or cues.

350
Q

What are retrieval cues and how do they work?

A

A clue or prompt that helps trigger a recall of info in LTM.

351
Q

How retrieval is tested and what is the serial position effect?

A

Recall is used to test retrieval of LTM without the aid of retrieval cues(free recall). Cued Recall is also used via fill-in-the-blank or mtp choice (recognition).
-The serial position effect is the tendency to retrieve info from the start or end of a list. The primary effect allows recollection of start data while recency effects the end.

352
Q

How can mood and context affect retrieval?

A

NAME?

353
Q

Be able to explain and identify examples of encoding specificity principle.

A

NAME?

354
Q

What discoveries were made by Hermann Ebbinghaus?

A

forgetting curve

355
Q

How do encoding failure, interference, and decay contribute to forgetting?

A

-encoding failure is the inability to recall specific info because of insufficient encoding of the specific info into LTM. (pennies)
-Decay theory forgetting is a normal brain process, opposed by the forgetting curve where LTM doesn’t decay over time.
-interference theory competing similar memory takes over another. Retroactive(new) vs Proactive(old)

356
Q

What is prospective memory and how can it be improved?

A

Remembering to do something in the future, when rather than WHAT. Improved by retrieval cues such as smartphone apps

357
Q

What is the difference between repression and suppression and how does each work?

A

sup is cons
res is uncon

358
Q

What is the misinformation effect?

A

memory distortion where existing memories are altered when exposed to misinformation

359
Q

What is source confusion and how can it distort memories?

A

occurs when the true source of a memory cant be remembered

360
Q

What are schemas and scripts, and how can they contribute to memory distortions?

A

schema: organized clusters of information about particular topics
scripts:Scripts are specific types of schemas that represent a sequence of events in a familiar situation. They act like mental scripts that guide our expectations about how things will unfold.

Both schemas and scripts can contribute to memory distortions in a few ways:

Confirmation Bias: We tend to remember information that confirms our existing schemas and scripts, while forgetting or downplaying contradictory information.
Filling in the Gaps: Schemas can prompt us to fill in missing details in memories, potentially creating false memories.
Telescoping: Scripts can lead to compressing memories from similar events, blurring the lines between specific instances.

361
Q

How are memories both localized and distributed in the brain?

A

memories arent localized, though Karl Lashleys research over 30 years removed parts of rat’s cortexes but could still run a maze. years later proved half wrong through bunny they can both be localized and distributed based on the complexity of the memory

362
Q

Eric kandel

A

Focus: Cellular mechanisms of memory in Aplysia californica (sea slug).
Experiments: Studied changes in gill withdrawal reflex of the sea slug after sensitization (repeated stimulation).
Key Discovery: Identified specific changes in protein synthesis and gene expression within neurons that underlie memory formation.
Contribution: Pioneered the study of memory at the cellular and molecular level, demonstrating the biological basis of memory.

363
Q

Karl Lashley

A

Focus: Neural basis of memory in rats.
Experiments: Conducted lesion studies, removing various brain areas in rats and testing their ability to learn and retain maze tasks.
Key Finding: Found no clear localization of memory in the brain. Memory wasn’t stored in a specific brain region but seemed to be distributed.
Contribution: Discredited the idea of a single “memory center” in the brain. His work highlighted the distributed nature of memory storage.

364
Q

Richard Thompson

A

Focus: Classical conditioning and memory in rabbits.
Experiments: Developed the Rabbit Eyelid Conditioning paradigm, where rabbits learn to blink in response to a tone paired with an air puff to the eye.
Key Discovery: Demonstrated different memory systems. Hippocampus was crucial for explicit or declarative memory (conscious recollection of the conditioning), while the cerebellum played a role in implicit or non-declarative memory (unconscious expression of the conditioned response).
Contribution: Provided evidence for multiple memory systems with distinct functions in the brain.

365
Q

Who was H.M. and what did his case reveal about normal memory processes?

A

HM suffered seizures so severe pieces of his temporal lobe, hippocampus, and amygdala was removed. While reducing the seizures he could no longer form new memories.
-suggesting that hippo was not involved because he could recall info if it was rehearsed but involved in LTM in encoding, and transferring from STM to LTM

366
Q

What brain structures are involved in normal memory?

A

Cerebellum: classical conditioning, simple reflexes, procedural/ motor memories
Hippocampus: encodes and transfers new explicit memory to LTM
Amygdala: encodes and stores emotional aspects of memory
prefrontal cortex: aids in working memory by focusing on relevant info
Medial temporal lobe: encodes complex memories by forming links among info in multiple brain regions

367
Q

What are dementia and Alzheimer’s disease?

A

Dementia is a progressive deterioration and impairment of memory, reasoning, language and other cognitive functioning as a result of result of disease, injury or substance abuse
Alzheimers Disease: a progressive disease that destroys the brains neurons, gradually impairing memory, thinking, language. Most common cause of dimentia.

368
Q

What are some of the basic characteristics of mental images?

A

representation of objects or events that are physically present. manipulation and memory.

369
Q

How do we manipulate mental images?

A

physical manipulation like rotation. They are similar to memory which are subject to error

370
Q

Nancy Kanwisher

A

Focus: Neural correlates of object recognition in the human brain using fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging).
Key Finding: Identified the fusiform gyrus, a region in the temporal lobe, as crucial for object recognition. This brain area becomes

more active when people see objects or perceive them mentally.

Contribution: Advanced our understanding of the neural basis of visual perception and its connection to mental imagery. Kanwisher’s work suggests that mental imagery activates similar brain regions as real visual perception.

371
Q

Stephen Kosslyn

A

Focus: Mental imagery and its role in visual perception, cognition, and memory.
Development of Mental Imagery Scanning Techniques: Kosslyn proposed methods like mental scanning, where participants scan a mental image as if moving their attention across it. He argued that these techniques could provide insights into the processes underlying mental imagery.
Contribution: Provided evidence for the overlap between visual processing and mental imagery. Kosslyn’s work helped establish mental imagery as a valuable tool for cognitive research.
-The results supported Kosslyn’s hypothesis. Participants took longer to mentally “scan” across longer distances within their visualized images than shorter distances, suggesting that mental imagery is spatially organized and operates in a similar manner to seeing actual spatial distances.

372
Q

Beatrice & Daniel Wohlschläger:

A

Focus: Mental rotation, a specific type of mental imagery manipulation where participants imagine an object rotating in their mind.
Experiments: Used reaction time and brain imaging techniques to study mental rotation. Their work suggests that mental rotation involves spatial processing mechanisms in the parietal lobe of the brain.
Contribution: Provided insights into the cognitive processes underlying mental imagery manipulation. Their research on mental rotation demonstrates how we can manipulate specific aspects of mental images.

373
Q

What are concepts and how are they formed? What are the different types of concepts?

A

mental catagory of objects or ideas based on properties they share. By learning the rule or feature that defines a concept that are logical but rigid (define attributes)

374
Q

What are prototypes and exemplars and how are they used?

A

prototype: the most typical instance of a particular concept
exemplars: individual instances of a concept or category held in memory
-How We Use Them: When encountering a new object, we compare it to the exemplars we have stored in memory. If the new object shares enough features with a stored exemplar, we categorize it within that category.

375
Q

ADV and DISADV of each problem solving strat

A

trial and error: useful for limited solution issues like developing a curry recipe
Algorithm: usually math formula. takes sometimes very long to reach a solution but always produces one.
Heuristic: uses the rule of thumb to find a solution, reduces the number of possible solutions. No guarentee

376
Q

How can functional fixedness and mental set interfere with problem solving?

A

functional fixedness: TENDENCY TO ONLY VEIW objects in their visual customary way. Prevents from seeing full range of ways an object can be used.
Mental Set: tendency to persist with solutions that have worked in the past. Will not see other possible solutions. Blocks insight in already knowledgeable areas.

377
Q

Be able to determine if availability or representative heuristic is being used in a situation.

A

Availability Heuristic
Definition: Estimates the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of that event come to mind. If we can think of many examples of something happening, we judge it to be more common than it actually is.
Example: You might think that shark attacks are a more common cause of death than car accidents because you hear more about shark attacks in the news, even though car accidents are statistically much more frequent.

Representativeness Heuristic:

Definition: Estimates the probability of an event by comparing it to a stereotype or prototype. We judge how likely something is based on how well it matches our existing mental image of a particular category.
Example: You meet someone new who is a lawyer. Because you have a stereotype of lawyers as being wealthy and arrogant, you might assume this person is wealthy and arrogant as well, even though this stereotype isn’t always accurate.

378
Q

Be able to identify the obstacles identified in this section as they relate to maintaining unwanted beliefs.

A

Belief Bias Effects: people only accept evidence that conforms to their beliefs
Confirmation Bias: the tendency to seek evidence that confirms existing beliefs and ignore contradicting evidence
The fallacy of positive instances: tendency to remember uncommon events that seem to confirm our beliefs and forget events that disprove
The overestimation effect: tendency to overestimate the rarity of events

379
Q

how does syntax play a part in determining how we use language?

A

Syntax, the set of rules governing sentence structure, plays a crucial role in how we use language. It’s the invisible grammar scaffolding that allows us to create meaningful sentences and express ourselves clearly.

380
Q

The Whorfian Hypothesis

A

the idea that the language a person speaks influences their worldview or cognition, and therefore their perceptions of the world.

381
Q

Linguistic Relativity Principle

A

the particular language we speak influences the way we think about reality

382
Q

Why arent Ben Whorf’s ideas not supported today?

A

Limited evidence: Some studies haven’t found a strong causal link between language structure and thought patterns. People seem to be able to think outside the constraints of their language.
Reverse causality: It’s possible that the way people perceive the world influences the development of their language, rather than the other way around.
Oversimplification: The relationship between language and thought is likely more complex than a simple cause-and-effect scenario. Cultural factors and personal experiences also play a role in shaping cognition.

383
Q

What has research found out about the cognitive abilities of nonhuman animals?

A

Research has found that nonhuman animals, including chimpanzees, bonobos, dolphins, honeyguides, Western scrub jays, owls, pigeons, and dogs, possess a variety of cognitive abilities. These include the ability to communicate complex information, remember past events, plan for the future, and understand language-like systems. While they may not exhibit all aspects of human-like cognition, such as understanding of human emergencies, they demonstrate impressive cognitive skills that challenge the notion of human exceptionalism.

384
Q

zcore

A

A z-score, also known as a standard score, measures how many standard deviations a data point is from the mean of a dataset. It is calculated by subtracting the mean from the data point and then dividing the result by the standard deviation. Z-scores allow for comparisons between data points from different distributions by standardizing them to a common scale.

385
Q

t test

A

A t-test is a statistical test used to compare the means of two groups to determine if they are significantly different from each other. It evaluates whether the differences observed in sample data are likely to exist in the larger population from which the samples were drawn.

386
Q

type I and II errors

A

A Type I error occurs when a true null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected, leading to a false positive result. A Type II error happens when a false null hypothesis is not rejected, resulting in a false negative outcome

387
Q

signal detection theory

A

Signal detection theory (SDT) is a framework used to understand how individuals distinguish between signal (important stimuli) and noise (irrelevant stimuli) in the presence of uncertainty. It examines the ability to make decisions under conditions of uncertainty, considering factors like sensitivity (ability to detect the signal) and criterion (threshold for deciding if a signal is present).

388
Q

orthonasal vs retronasal olfaction

A

Orthonasal olfaction refers to the perception of odors through the nostrils during inhalation, which is the primary way we detect environmental scents. Retronasal olfaction occurs when odorants from food or drink reach the olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity through the pharynx during eating or drinking, significantly contributing to the flavor perception of foods and beverages.

389
Q

gate-control theory

A

The gate-control theory of olfaction posits that the perception of smells is modulated by neural mechanisms in the brain that act like gates, controlling the intensity and quality of olfactory signals. These gates can be influenced by various factors such as attention, emotion, and prior experiences, which can enhance or diminish the perception of certain odors.

390
Q
A

ACP Psychology (7 decks)

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