Final Exam Study Guide Flashcards
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Charles Darwin
Work on Origins of Species. Provided compelling account of evolution and natural selection.
Sigmond Freud
Developed a theory of personality called psychoanalysis. Believed human behavior was based on unconscious conflicts.
William James
One of Harvord’s most outstanding students became a professor, critical in establishing psych in the US. Inspired by Wundt’s articles. Wrote the leading psychology textbook “Principles of Psychology”. Ideas founded Functionalism.
Abraham Maslow
Key component and Advocate of Humanistic Psychology. Developed theory of motivation.
Ivan Pavlov
Russian experimental neurologist and physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs. Discovered that automatic behavior was triggered by natural stimuli (all behaviors were learned). Influenced by B. F. Skinner, John B. Watson
Carl Rogers
Largely founded humanistic psych. Like Freud, he was influenced by his patients. Emphasized self-determination and free will.
Pauline Elizabeth Scarborough
Campaigned for the inclusion of women in US psychology history. Explored women’s changing social status.
B.F Skinner
After Watson, Skinner took over behaviorism. He believed that Psychology should be studied by the observable and famously used reinforcement (punishments) techniques on rats and pigeons.
Edward B. Tichener
One of Wundt’s students who developed Structuralism. After his death, structuralism was over even though it was the first school of thought.
Margaret Floy Washburn
First US woman to earn a PhD in Psychology. Edward Tichener’s first doctoral student. Research the inner experiences of different animal species.
John B. Watson
He did not believe in Structuralism and advocated heavily for Behaviorism. who played an important role in developing behaviorism. He is remembered for his research on the conditioning process
Wilhelm Wundt
German psychologist is known as the founder of experimental psychology. Studied reaction times.
Psychology
Study of behavior and mental processes
Structuralism
most complex conscious experiences could be broken down into elemental structures.
Functionalism
Emphasized the purpose or function of behavior and mental processes. Founded by the ideas of William James. Did not limit ideas to introspection.
psychoanalysis
Personality theory and form of psychotherapy and emphasize the role of unconscious thoughts in determining personality and behavior
Behaviorism
The study of observable behaviors especially during learning.
Humanistic Psychology
Emphasized each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction.
Neuroscience
The study of the nervous system, especially the brain.
Culture
Refers to the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people communicated through generations.
Ethnocrentrism
Belief that one’s own culture is superior to all others.
Individualistic Cultures
Emphasizes needs and goals of an individual over the group.
Psychaitry
The medical specialty that focuses on the diagnoses of treatments, causes, and prevention of behavioral disorders.
Scientific Method
Set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.
Empirical Evidence
Verifiable evidence, that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and experimentation.
Hypothesis
A tentative statement that describes the relationship between 2 or more variables.
Variable
A factor that can vary or change, in ways that it can measured, observed, and verified.
Operational Definition
A precise description of how the variables in a study will be measured, manipulated and changed.
Statistics
A branch of math to analyze, summarize, and interpret data they have collected.
Statistically Significant
A mathematical indication that the research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance if there truly isn’t anything that can be found.
Effect Size
A stat that tells us, in general terms, whether a particular finding is small, medium, or large.
Meta-Analysis
A stat technique that involves pooling the effect size of several research studies into a single analysis.
Open Science
The use of transparent research practices, including sharing the procedures of a study, the specifics of how the stats were calculated, and the research data.
Replicate
To repeat a study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings.
Theory
(Model), is a tentative explanation that tries to account for diverse findings on the same topic.
Descriptive Research
Research that uses scientific procedures for systematically observing and describing behavior.
Longitudinal Design
Research strategy that tracks a particular variable in the same group of participants over time, sometimes for years.
Cross-Sectional Design
Research strategy for studying a variable or set of variables among a group of participants at a single point in time.
Naturalistic Observation
The systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting.
Case Study
An intensive, in-depth investigation of an individual, a family, or some other social unit.
Survey
A structured set of questions designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, and characteristics of a specific group.
Sample
A selected segment of the population is used to represent the group that is being studied.
Representative Sample
A selected segment that vert closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.
Random Selection
Process by which every member of a larger group has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample.
Correlational Study
A study that examines how strongly two variables are related to, or associated with each other.
Correlation Coefficient
A numerical indicator of the strength of the relationship (correlation), between two variables.
Positive Correlation
A finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction, that is, increasing or decreasing together.
Negative Correlation
A finding in which the two variables move in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases.
Experimental Research
A method of investigation used to demonstrate the cause-and-effect relationship by purposefully manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another variable.
Independent Variable
A factor that is purposefully manipulated to produce a change in an experiment; is also called the predictor variable.
Dependent Variable
The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment; also called the outcome variable.
Confounding Variables
Extraneous variables that are not the focus of the experiment but could effect the outcome of an experiment.
Random Assignment
The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions so that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study.
Experimental Group
Group of participants who are all exposed to all experimental conditions, including treatment condition of the independent variable; also called experimental condition.
Control Group
Group of participants exposed to the control of the independent variable; also called the control condition.
Testing Effect
The finding is that practicing retrieval of information from memory produces better retention than restudying the same information for an equal amount of time.
Double-Blind Technique
An experimental control in which both the participants and the researchers are “blind” or unaware of the treatment or condition to which the participants have been assigned.
Demand Charactaristic
In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researchers communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant.
Placebo
A fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects.
Placebo Effect
Any change to a person’s beliefs and expectations rather than to an actual drug, treatment, or procedure.
Natural Experiment
A study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants.
Critical Thinking
Actively questioning statements rather than blindly accepting them.
Comparative Psychology
The branch of psychology that studies the behavior of non-human animals.
Pierre Pauul Broca
Confirmed that some language functions were localized to the left frontal lobe.
Roger Sperry
Gathered patients who had their brains split in half.
Karl Wernickle
Discovered that when an area of the left hemisphere was injured a different type of language disturbace would appear. Spoken and written
Biological Psychology
The scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes.
Neurons
Cells that are highly specialized to receive and transmit information from one part of the body to another.
Sensory Neuron
type of neuron that conveys information about the environment, such as light or sound, from specialized receptor cells in the sense organs to the brain.
Motor Neuron
type of neuron that communicates information from the muscles and glands of the body.
Interneuron
type of neuron that communicates information between neurons
Cell Body
The part of the neuron that contains structures that process nutrients providing the energy the neuron needs to functions
Dendrites
The part of the neuron that receives messages from other neurons.
Axon
Part of the neuron that carries information from the neuron to other cells in the body, including other neurons, glands, and muscles
Glial Cell
Cells that provide structural and functional support for neurons throughout the nervous system
Myelin Sheath
a white, fatty, covering wrapped around the axons of some, but not all neurons in the brain
Stimulus threshold
The minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron
action potential
a brief electrical impulse that transmits information along the axon of a neuron
resting potential
the state in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if it receives sufficient stimulation.
synapse
The point of communication between 2 neurons
synaptic gap
a tiny fluid filled space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons
axon terminals
small branches at the end of the axon
synaptic vesicles
Tiny sacs in the axon terminal
store and release neurotransmitters at the synapse
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron
synaptic transmission
the entire process of transmitting information at the synapse
reuptake
the process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from the receptor and are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron so they can be recycled and used again.
acetlycholine
chemical means by which neurons communicate with the muscles : learning, memory, muscle contraction
dopamine
involved in movement, attention, learning and pleasurable rewarding sensations
serotinin
involved in sleep, sensory perceptions, mood, and emotional state.
norepinephrine
Physical arousal, learning, memory, regulation of sleep. Helps body gear up in the face of danger.
glutamine
excitatory messages
GABA
inhibitory messages
endorphines
pain perception, positive emotions
nervous system
system of 1 trillion linked neurons throughout the body in complex organized communication network
nerves
large bundles of neuron axons that carry information in the peripheral nervous system
central nervous system (CNS)
division of the nervous system consisting of spinal cord and brain
spinal reflexes
simple, automatic, behaviors that occur without any brain involvement
peripheral nervous system
includes the nerves lying outside of the CNS
somatic nervous system
communicates sensory information received by sensory receptors along sensory nerves to the CNS
autonomic nervous system
regulates involuntary functions like heartbeat, blood pressure breathing and digestion
sympathetic nervous system
bodys emergency system, rapidly activating bodily systems to meet the needs of threats
endocrine system
system of glands located throughout the body, secrete hormes into the bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers secreted into primarily the blood stream
hypothalamus
complex structure just beneath the thalamus. Direct link between the endocrine system and the nervous system via the pituitary gland
pituitary gland
pea-sized gland just under the brain that regulates body production of other hormones by many of the glands in the endocrine system.
oxytocin
hormone invovled in reproduction social motivation and social behavior that is produced by the hypothalamus and released through pituitary gland
adrenal glands
pair of endocrine glands that produce hormones involved in the human response and play a key role in the fight or flight response
functional plasticity
the brains ability to shift functions from damaged to undamaged brain areas
structural plasticity
the brain’s ability to change its physical structure in response to learning active practice or environmental influences
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
image technique used that produces highly detailed images of the bodies structures and tissues =, using electromagnetic signals generated by the body in response to magnetic fields
diffusion MRI (dMRI)
maps neural connections in the brain by tracking the movement of eater molecules along myelinated axones
positron emission tomography (PET)
color-coded images of brain activity by tracking the brain use of a radioactively tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug.
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
uses magnetic feilds to map brain activity by measuring changes to the brains blood flow and oxygen levels
neurogenisis
the development of new neurons
brianstem
A region of the brain made up of the hindbrain and midbrain
hindbrain
at the base of the brain containing several structures that regulate basic life functions
medulla
hindbrain structure that controls vital life functions
pons
hindbrain structure that connects the medulla and two sides of the cerebellum and helps coordinate and integrate movements on each side of the body.
cerebellum
large 2 sided, hindbrain structure at the back of the brain that is responsible for muscle coordination and equilibrium
reticular formation
network of nerve fibers located in the center of the medulla that helps regulate attention arousal and sleep.
midbrian
relay station that contains centers involved in the processing of auditory and visual sensory info
forebrain
largest most complex, contains centers for complex behaviors and mental processes, also called cerebrum
limbic system
group of forebrain structures that form a border around the brainstem and involved in emotion, motivation learning and memory
hippocampus
large forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and embedded in the temporal lobe in each cerebral hemisphere.
thalamus
rounded forebrain structure located within each cerebral hemisphere that process sensory info except smell.
amygdala
almond-shaped cluster of neurons at the base of the temporal lobe. - involved in emotions
cerebral cortex
wrinkled outer portions of the forebrian. contains most complex brain centers.
cerebral hemispheres
nearly symmetrical left and right halve of the cerebral cortex.
corpus callosum
thick band of axons that connects 2 cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them
occipital lobe
area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that is the primary receiving area for visual info
parietal lobe
area of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex located above the temporal lobe that processes body sensations.
temporal lobe
an area on each hemi of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving center for auditory info.
frontal lobe
largest lobe. processes voluntary muscle movement and involved in thinking planning and emotional control.
cortical localization
idea that particular brain area are associated with specific functions
aphasia
the partial or complete inability to articulate ideas understand spoken language or written because of brain injury or damage
Broca’s area
brain region of the frontal lobe of the dominant hemi usually the left, that is crucial for speech production
Wernicke’s area
left temporal lobe of dominant hemi crucial for language.
lateralization of function
notion that specific functions are processed primary on one side of the brain
parasympathetic nervous system
conserves and maintains physical resources
Sensation
The process of detecting a sound, physical stimulus, such as light, sound, heat or pressure
Perception
The process of integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensations
Sensory Receptors
Specialized cells unique to each organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulation.
Absolute Threshold
The smallest possible strength of a stimulus that can be detected half the time.
Transduction
The process by which physical energy is converted into a coded neural signal that can be processed by the nervous system.
Difference Threshold
The smallest possible difference between 2 stimuli that can be detected half the time. Also called “Noticeable Difference”.
sensory adaptation
The gradual decline in sensitivity ti a constant stimulus.
Wavelength
the distance from one wave peak to another
Pupul
The opening in the middle of the iris that changes size to let in different amounts of light
Lens
A transparent structure located behind the pupil that actively focuses or bends light as it enters the eye.
Accommodation
the process by which the lens changes shape to focus incoming light falls into the retina
retina
a thin light-sensitive membrane located at the back of the eye which contains the sensory receptors for vision
rods
the long thin blunt sensory receptor of the eye that are highly sensitive to light but not color
cones
a short thick pointed sensory receptor of the eye that detects color
fovea
a small area of the center of the retina composed entirely of cones, where visual info is most sharply focused
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, producing a small gap in the field of vision
optic nerve
the thick nerve that exits from the back of the eye and carries visual info to the visual cortex in the brain
optic chiasm
the point in the brain where the optic nerve fibers from each eye meet and partly cross over the opposite side of the brain
trichromatic theory of color vision
theory that the sensation of color results because cones are especially sensitive to red light, green light, or blue light.
opponent process theory of color vision
Color vision is the product of opposing pairs of color receptors. (Red-green) (Blue-yellow) (Black white). When one is stimulated the other is inhibited.
audition
Term for sense of hearing
pitch
relative high or lowness of a sound, determined by the frequency of a sound wave.
frequency
rate of vibration or number of sound waves per second
outer ear
part of the ear that collects all of the sound waves, includes the pinna the ear canal and the ear drum
middle ear
the part of the ear that amplifies sound wave consisting of the hammer, anvil, and stirrup.
cochlea
The coiled fluid-filled inner ear structure that contains basilar membrane and hair cells
basilar membrane
Membrane within the cochlea of the ear containing hair cells
hair cells
sensory receptors for sound which are embedded in the basilar membrane
frequency theory
view that basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound
olfaction
sense of smell
gustation
sense of taste
pheromones
chemical signals that have evolved for communication with other members of the same species called chemosignals
olfactory bulb
enlarged ending of the olfactory cortex at the front of the brain where sensation of smell is registered
taste buds
sensory receptors for taste
pain
unpleasant sensory emotion associated with body harm
gate control theory of pain
the theory that physiological and psychological factors cause spinal gates to open and relay to the brain patterns of stimulation that are perceived as pain
proprioception
sense of body movement and position
ESP (extrasensory perception)
perception of info caused by means other than through the normal process of sensation
parapsychology
investigation of claims of paranormal phenomena and abilites
bottom-up processing
Emphasizes sensory receptors in detecting the basic features of a stimulus. Attention focuses on the parts of the pattern before moving the whole.
top-down processing
Emphasizes the observer’s experiences in arriving at the meaningful perceptions. Attention moves from the whole to the part of the pattern.
gestalt psych
sensations are actively processed according to consistent perceptual rules, producing meaningful whole perceptions or gestalts.
-It focuses on the dynamic organization of experience into patterns or configurations, and emphasizes that the whole of something is greater than its parts.
figure-ground relationship
gestalt principle states that perception is automatically separated into the figure, which is the main element of the scene, and the ground, which is its background.
depth perception
The use of visual cues to perceive the distance of the three-dimensional characteristics of an object.
monocular cues
Distance or depth cues that can be processed by either eye alone
binocular cues
Distance or depth cues that can be processed by either eye alone
perceptual constancy
the tendency to perceive objects, especially familiar objects, as constant and unchanging despite changes in sensory input
size constancy
The perception that a familiar object remains the same size regardless of the image produced on our retinas
shape constancy
The perception that a familiar object remains the same shape regardless of the image produced on our retinas
perceptual illusion
The misperception of the true characteristic of an object or an image
Müller-Lyer illusion
a famous visual illusion involving the misperception of the identical length of two lines, one with arrows pointed inward and one with arrows pointed outward
moon illusion
a visual illusion involving the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead.
perceptual set
the tendency to perceive objects or situations from a particular frame of reference
Inner ear
Part of the ear where sound is transduced into neural impulses. consists of cochlea and semicircular canals
place theory
different frequencies cause larger vibrations at different locations along the basilar membrane
Myopia
Nearsighted (distant)
Presbiopia
Farsighted (nearby)
Cataract
Tissue in lens becomes cloudy
Astigmatism
Irregular shape of eyeball
Nociceptors
React to skin temp and strong pressure. Skin temp full below 59 degrees and above 113 degrees.
Thermoreceptors
Contain cold & warm fiber. Cold fibers are 30:1 warm receptors. Cold fibers react less than 86 and warm fibers more than 96.
Law of Pragnons
The brain seeks simple, efficient solution to a stim (law of simplicity)
A-Beta fibers
Fast pain system thalamus->thalamus->sensory cortex. Sharp intense short-lived pain.
C Fibers
Slow pain system, hypo & thalamus -> limbic system (Amygdala) lost lasting throbbing burning pain
motion paralax
While moving, objects appear to be moving in the opposite direction
mechanoreceptors
detectors that can sense pressure, vibration, and other physical changes
webber’s law
explain how we perceive differences in things like weight, brightness, or sound. It tells us that the noticeable change depends on the starting point or intensity of the stimulus.
volley theory
how groups of neurons work together to transmit signals quickly
vestibular sacs
maintain balance and body equalibrium
Akinetopsia
motion blindness
Capgras Delusion
false belief that an identical duplicate has replaced someone significant to the patient
Prosopagnosia
a condition where you have difficulty recognising people’s faces
Synesthesia
Synesthesia is a neurological
condition that causes one sense to be experienced through another
mcgurk effect
The illusion occurs because what you are seeing clashes with what you are hearing. Your brain comes up with some third thing that it believes true reality to be. This is called the mcgurk-a-thon
Consciousness
personal awareness of mental activities, internal sensations, and external environment. (William James described as stream or river)
What is waking Consciousness
conscious awareness
What is attention
the capacity to selectively focus awareness on particular stimuli in your external environment or on your internal thoughts or sensations
limitations of attention affect human thought and behavior?
-Attention has limited capacity: we cannot pay attention to every sound, sight, and other sensations in the external environment.
Attention is selective: “cocktail party effect” being able to focus your attention on a particular stimulus.
Attention can be blind: missing obvious stimuli in our field of vision or hearing.
Inattentional Blindness
Simply not noticing a significant object or event that occurs in our clear field of vision. Commonly exploited by magicians
Change blindness
Also very common. Refers to not noticing when something changes, such as when a friend gets a haircut or shaves his beard.
What really happens when we think we are multitasking?
The myth of multi-tasking refers to the division of attention during such events. Attention is divided up among each task receiving less attention than it normally would.
Circadian Rhythm
a roughly 24-hour cycle of fluctuations in biological and psychological processes.
Env Cues: Bright light regulates sleep cycle.
Bio cues: light, signals CNS and hypothalamus
Infradian Rhythm
A period longer than the Circadian rhythm. Seasonal: hibernation, migration, menstruation cycle
Ultradian Rhythm
Shorter than Circadian. Sleep stages as we cycle through a night’s sleep. (Regular oscillating)
suprachiasmatic nucleus
(Bodies master clock) regulates most circadian rhythms in the body. Located in a tiny region of the hypothalamus. t interprets light information, translates it into physiological signals
Relation between your eyes, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the pineal gland, the hormone melatonin and your circadian rhythm.
- Eyes detect lack of light
- The retina sends signals about the light levels to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain via the optic nerve.
- decreased available light is detected by the hypothalamus
- triggers the production of melatonin by the pineal gland
What effect does daylight saving time and/or travel across multiple time zones have on your circadian
rhythm?
Disruption of the biological clock can cause physical and mental fatigue, confusion problems concentrating, depression, or irritability.
What is the mechanism by which we study brain activity while subjects are sleeping?
Electroencephalograph (EEG). Interment that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure and record the brain’s rythmic electrical activity.
In what order does the sleep cycle
NREM 1,2,3, REM -> NREM 2,3, REM
REM vs NREM sleep cycles
REM sleep: rapid eye movement typically where dreaming occurs and voluntary muscle movement is suppressed.
NREM: non rapid eye movement, typically quiet and dreamless, (divided into 3 stages)
NREM 1
alpha->theta waves, Hypnogogic Hallucinations, Myoclonic jerks, (simple dreams)
NREM 2
Theta waves (beginning of delta waves), Sleep spindles, K complexes,(less vivid short intense dreams)
NREM 3
Delta Waves (large slow), deep sleep (sleep talking, walking, eating, etc.). (Few to no sleep)
REM
Beta waves (fast active), dreaming stage, physio arousal, no voluntary muscle movement, sleep mentation
Theta wave
NREM 1,2 (light sleep)
Beta wave
REM,occur during most awake activities,
Delta Wave
NREM 3 deep sleep
Sleep Spindles
Editing memory of the day (NREM 2), sharp peaks in quick seccession.
K Complexes
Save memory into long term(NREM 2), low to very high peak
alpha wave
NREM 1, (relaxed and sleepy)
sleep mentation
All thoughts, feelings, and brain activity during sleep
The imagery and thinking experienced during sleep
Sleep Depravation Causes…
Disruption in mood, mental abilities, reaction time, perceptual skills, and complex motor skills.
Activation Synthesis model of dreaming
The brainstem produces signals for dream images (activation), the the higher regions of the brain (visual, motor, auditory pathways, hippocampus, and amygdala) impose meaning on the dream images forming stories.
neurocognitive model of dreaming
Contrasts ASM of dreaming, claims dreams reflect our interests, personality, and individual worries (mirroring our waking concerns). Explains all forms of spontaneous thought
Lucid Dreaming
Being aware you are dreaming while you are sleep, dreams feel vivid and real.
-Caused by activation in the prefrontal cortex; responsible for self-awareness and reflection
psychoanalytic theory of dreams
Freud believed that the latent content of a dream is often related to unconscious desires, wishes, and conflicts.
These are thoughts and feelings that are so troubling or unacceptable that the conscious mind represses them.
dyssomnias
Affect duration and quality of sleep
parasomnias
undesirable physical arousal, behaviors, or events during sleep, (sleepwalking, sleep terrors, sleep sex, and eating disorders)
insomnia
inability to regularly fall asleep, stay asleep, or feel rested
narcolepsy
excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses of sleep episodes throughout the day
sleep terrors
episode of increased physio arousal, panic, frightening hallucinations (Night terrors)
sleep apnea
a potentially serious sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts
exploding head syndrome
parasomnia. It is the sensation of hearing a loud sound during sleep-wake/wake-sleep transitions
sleep walking (somnambulism)
NREM 3
Hypnosis
cooperative in which person responds to hypnotic suggestions with changes in perception, memory, thoughts and behaviors
What can hypnosis do
-detachment from bodies, profound relaxation, sensations of timelessness. post hpynotic suggestion amnesia
-sensory changes include hallucinations, temporary blindness, complete loss of specific sensation,
What canT hypnosis do
Change memories/do something against your morals
Focused Attention Technique
focusing awareness on a specific visual image, object, sound, word, or phrase (mantra).
-benefits:improving concentration, reducing stress, and promoting emotional wellbeing
Open monitoring technique
experience from moment to moment, rather than focusing on a stimulus. Open state of mind, non-reflective awareness
-benefits: stress relief, better thinking, increased emotional intelligence, and the ability to overcome mental biases
alcohol
Depressant, changes in brain circuits involved in cognition, motivation, and self control
nicotine
potent addictive stim found in smokeless tobacco.
caffiene
stim that promotes wakefulness, mental alertness, and faster thought processes. Blocks adenosine receptors to the brain
marijuana
psychedelic drug: sensory distortions, well-being, mild euphoria, enhanced senses
cocaine
illegal stim from the coca plant. Produces intense euphoria, mental alertness, and self-confidence.
-Blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine increasing their effects
depressants
drugs that depress, or inhibit brain activity
ex. alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers
stimulants
drugs that stimulate or excite brain activity
ex. caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine
Psychedelics/hallucinogens
drugs that distort sensory perception
ex. Mescaline (cactus), LSD
Opioids
pain-relieving psychoactive drug
ex. morphine, heroin
methamphetamine
easily manufactured, intense longer lasting high and less expensive than cocaine. Causes extensive neurological damage
Designer Club Drugs
Manufactured drugs commonly used in clubs
ex. ecstasy (stim and mild psyched) and dissociative anesthetics
How to overcome insomnia and improve sleep
monitor stim intake, quiet bedtime routine, condition for restful sleep, consistent sleep-wake schedule
What three characteristics are associated with motivation?
activation(initiating)
persistence(continued efforts)
intensity(vigor)
Instinct theory
Certain human programming is innate due to evolutionary programming. Human behavior is based upon thousands of evolutionary instinct
Incentive Theories
behavior is motivated by the pull of external goals such as rewards
Arousal Theory
people are motivated by a level of arousal not to high or low
Humanistic Theory
people are motivated to realize their person potential
drive theory
Replaced instinct theory, motivated by the desire to reduce unmet biological needs. Push and drive towards thirst and hunger.
basal metabolic rate
rate of energy consumption to maintain vital body weight
insulin
controls blood glucose levels and uptake, regulates eating
leptin
hormone secreted by adipose tissue(fat), regulates hunger and eating
ghrelin
hormone causing hunger
neuropeptide Y (NPY)
neurotransmitter released by the hypothalamus that promotes eating. weight loss promotes release of NPY
cholecystokinin (CCK)
hormone found in the small intestine that enhances stretch receptor
sensory specific satiety
a decrease in the pleasantness of a specific food that has just been eaten to satiation
set-point theory
humans have a set natural body weight that the body tries to maintain
Self-Determination Theory
Proposed by Deci and Ryan, said that 3 needs must be met to reach optimal human functioning
-autonomy: control over your choices
-competence: need to learn and master challenging tasks
-relatedness: sense of belonging
Achievement Motivation
Directing behavior towards excelling or succeeding
-measured with various areas of success including good grades, job performance or worker output.
How does culture affect achievement motivation
Individualistic cultures tend to focus on individual accomplishment, usually a competitive task. Collectivistic cultures have a different view where achievement is motivated by the benefits to a larger group.
What is the difference between achievement and competence motivation?
Mastery goals are focused on learning to do something well, while performance goals is simply showing others you can do it. (Fixed vs Growth mindset)
Brain’s fear circuit
- Information arrives at the thalamus (info relay)
- Crude info travels directly to the amygdala causes almost instant fear repsonse
- detailed information goes to the visual cortex where it is interpreted
Emotional Experience in the brain
amygdala: important in fear response
hippocampus: memory and emotional learning, ties emotion to past experience
Limbic Cortex: influences mood, motivation, and judgment
How does the evolutionary perspective explain the dual brain pathways for transmitting fear-related information
fast track: amygdala triggers fight or flight response
slow track: thalamus and cortex take an analytical approach forming a complex solution
Components of emotion
Cognitive: what you think
physical: how you body feels (body reaction)
behavioral: urge to do (instead of thinking)
what functions do emotions serve
Prepare the Body for Immediate Action:
When triggered, emotions orchestrate systems such as perception, attention, inference, learning, memory, goal choice, motivational priorities, physiological reactions, motor behaviors, and behavioral decision-making
What evidence supports the idea that facial expressions for basic emotions are universal?
Paul Eckman’s research showed that humans were able to identify each emotion
-and blind and deaf babies still show emotion
How does culture affect the behavioral expression of emotion? (Specifically, emblems and display rules)
Across almost all cultures expression is universal except slight differences called dialects.
-emblems like nodding head yes and no mean different things across the world
-Display rules govern your facial expression in different situations
James-Lange Theory of emotion
The response comes before the emotion
-criticized because physiological does not mean there is an emotional response (ex. heart rate)
Cannon bard Theory of emotion
The physiological response happens simultaneously
Schacter-Singer Two-Factor theory of emotion
Agreed that physio response is essential but also maintained that arousal is similar for different emotions.
-We label cognitive arousal as a specific emotion given our interpretation of the situation. Thus our interaction between physio arousal and cognitive label explains state
Self- Efficacy
degree to which people are convinced about their own ability to meet demands of a situation
Implementation: Steps to Turn goals into actions
- Form a goal intention (specific goal)
- Create implementation intentions(specific plan)
Mental Rehearsal
Mental images heavily affect self-efficacy and self-control during situations.
hypnogogic hallucinations
-hallucinations that happen as you’re falling asleep
-A hallucination is a false perception of objects or events involving your senses: sight, sound, smell, touch and taste.
What is conditioning
Learning, the process of training or accustoming a person or animal to behave in a certain way or to accept certain circumstances.
What are the 3 types of conditioning
Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and observational learning
How did Pavlov discover and investigate classical conditioning??
used dogs to study the production of saliva through the bell
- associated the natural response of food to the bell
-creating a CS
Why is classical conditioning sometimes referred to associative learning?
it involves forming associations between different stimuli and behaviors. This type of learning is based on the principle that certain responses can be conditioned (or learned) when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with another stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a response.
Acquisition Phase (& pavlovian example)
repeating paring of pairings until subject forms a mental association
bell + food= salivate… continued pairing of bell to food causes conditioned stim and CR
dentify; the neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response.
neutral stimulus: has no reflexive effect/response
unconditioned stimulus/response: naturally occurring stimulus that elicits an automatic, reflexive response
conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response: conditioned stimulus alone can elicit the response that previously required the unconditioned stimulus
Interstim Interval
Period of time between stim. Effects how well and quickly an association is learned
stimulus discrimination
Responding differently to similar but different stims. (occurs when one stim elicits the CR but another similar stim does not)
Ex. Different models of car
Stim Generalization
responding the same way to similar but different stimuli (when a new stim that is similar to the CS but another elicits the same CR)
Ex. A dog is conditioned to drool when it hears a clicking noise. The dog may also drool when it hears similar sounds, like tapping and beeping noises
Higher Order Conditioning
Occurs when an established CS functions as UCS in a new conditioning trial
Ex. Painful injection (UCS) made baby cry (UCR). soon develops conditioned response in which the sight of a doctors jacket (CS) triggered crying (CR)
extinction
gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior
ex. ticking was consistently presented without food the response would gradually disapear
spontaneuos recovery
reappearance of previously extinguished CR after a period of time without exposure to the CS
shaping
Shaping is a behavioral modification technique that involves reinforcing behaviors that are closer to a desired outcome. It’s a form of operant conditioning.
ex.when a baby or a toddler learns to walk. They are reinforced for crawling, then standing, then taking one step, then taking a few steps, and finally for walking
Relationship between pavlov and watson
Watson took Pavlov’s theories about animals and applied them to humans, arguing that the principles of classical conditioning could explain not just simple behaviors (like salivation in dogs) but complex human behaviors and emotional reactions.
Rescorla
Proposed Classical involves learinng relationships between events. 20 tones followed by 20 shocks.
Darwin
Darwin’s work provides a broader evolutionary context that helps explain why certain conditioned responses may have evolved due to their adaptive value in natural environments
öhman & Mineka
They have demonstrated through their research how some fears are more easily acquired due to evolutionary predispositions.
John Garcia
Discovered associations are more common when they are biologically prepared, ie taste aversions
Thorndike’s Law of Effect (how did it affect skinners ideas)
Behaviors followed by bad results are less likely to occur and behaviors followed by good results are more likely to occur again (influenced the skinner box)
-Behavioral Consequence,Refinement and Systematization,Experimental Rigor,Theory Expansion
positive and negative reinforcement
POS: addition of rein stim strengthening an operant response
NEG: removal of averse stim strengthen an operant
Pos and neg punishment
POS: add of a punishing stim weakening an operant response
NEG: removal of a rein stim weakens an operant response
What is the difference between a primary reinforcer and a
conditioned (secondary) reinforcer?
primary reinforcers are biological stimuli
that are essential for survival. Secondary reinforcers, also known as conditioned reinforcers, are learned stimuli that are used to obtain primary reinforcers.
how are behaviors affected in the skinner box and in everyday life
positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated
-Reinforcement Schedules,Behavior Modification,Habit Formation,Product Design and Marketing
continuous reinforcement, partial reinforcement and accidental
C: specififc/targeted constant during beginning stages of association
P: uses 4 schedules, involves only occasional reinforcement of a behavior
fixed ratio
A reward is given after a set number of responses.
Strengths:
Encourages a high response rate due to the clear link between behavior and reinforcement.
Weaknesses:
May lead to a pause in response after reinforcement, reducing overall effectiveness.
variable ratio
Rewards are given after an unpredictable number of responses, which tends to create a high and steady rate of response.
Strengths:
Generates a high and consistent rate of responding, as reinforcement might follow any response.
Weaknesses:
Can encourage continuous, potentially compulsive behavior with little respite, similar to gambling.
fixed interval
Rewards are provided after a fixed amount of time, as long as the desired behavior occurs within that interval.
Strengths:
Provides consistent and predictable reinforcement intervals, easing the understanding of reward timing.
Weaknesses:
Often results in a “scallop” effect, where response rates increase only as the next reinforcement time approaches, then drop.
variable interval
Rewards are given after variable amounts of time, following the first occurrence of the behavior after the time has elapsed.
Strengths:
Produces a moderate and steady rate of response, making it highly resistant to extinction.
Weaknesses:
Can lead to frustration or disengagement due to the unpredictability and perceived sparsity of reinforcements.
Edward C Tolman
Believed opposite of thorndike and skinner; cognitive processes play an important role in learning of complex behaviors (cognitive maps and latent learning)
-did experiment with rats:group with food incentive first round knew the map more than the group without food
Cognitive maps
mental representation of a familar layout of an enviorment
Latent learning
occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available
Martin Seligmin
research on the theory of learned helplessness. “Learned helplessness is a term specifying an organism learning to accept and endure unpleasant stimuli, and unwilling to avoid them, even when it is avoidable.”
-Group Two Dogs: The dogs that had experienced uncontrollable shocks did not try to escape; they passively endured the shocks, demonstrating what Seligman termed “learned helplessness.” These dogs had learned from the first phase of the experiment that nothing they did had any effect on the shocks, leading them to give up in the second phase, even though escape was possible.
Keller and Marian Breland
the tendency of an animal to revert to unconscious and automatic behaviour that interferes with learned behaviour from operant conditioning. Instinctive drift was coined by Keller and Marian Breland, former students of B.F.
-The Brelands realized that this wasn’t an isolated incident but a pattern seen across different species. They noticed that trained behaviors could degrade into instinctual behaviors, particularly when those behaviors were somewhat related to the trained tasks. This observation led them to coin the term “instinctive drift.”
reinforcement: avoidance and escape
- Reinforcement by Escape
Escape reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that is already present. The behavior is negatively reinforced because it allows the individual to escape from the unpleasant situation.
Example: Turning off a loud alarm that rings every morning serves as an escape from the noise. If pressing a button stops the alarm, you will likely press the button again in the future to escape the unpleasant sound.
- Reinforcement by Avoidance
Avoidance reinforcement occurs when a behavior prevents the occurrence of an aversive stimulus before it starts. The behavior is negatively reinforced because it allows the individual to avoid the unpleasant situation altogether.
Example: If you take an alternate route to work to avoid heavy traffic, your behavior of taking that route is reinforced because you avoid the stress of being stuck in traffic.
Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura, a prominent psychologist, demonstrated the principles of observational learning most famously through his Bobo doll experiment conducted in the early 1960s.
- Children who had observed the aggressive model were significantly more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior towards the Bobo doll themselves, mimicking the actions and words of the adult model. Those who observed the non-aggressive model showed significantly less aggression, and the control group fell in between.
Mirror Neuron
Def:a type of brain cell that respond when a person performs an action or observes someone else performing the same action
How it improves self control: mirror others emotional responses
discriminative stimulus.
A discriminative stimulus is a cue or signal that indicates the availability of reinforcement or punishment following a particular behavior
What is memory
The mental processes that enable you to encode, retain, and retrieve information over time.
Encoding
you should know this
Storage
NAME?
Retrieval
-the process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it
-A smell can act as a reminder of a favourite childhood meal; a song on the radio can trigger a memory from a special occasion
How does the stage model of memory explain memory process?
-Explains the basic workings of memory. Based on the idea info is transferred from one stage to another
-Sensory memory->short term->long term
How does Atticison Schiffrin’s Adapted 3-stage model of memory explain the memory process?
AKA working memory uses tools from long-term unconscious processing to bypass the stage model
-working memory - Unlike short-term memory, which passively holds information for a brief period, working memory allows us to actively manipulate and process information for a short duration (typically seconds). emphasized by rehearsal
How does Alan Baddley’s Expanded Model model of memory explain the memory process?
How it Works:
- Information enters through our senses or is retrieved from long-term memory.
- Central Executive allocates attention to relevant information.
Information is processed within the slave systems: - Verbal information goes to the phonological loop for rehearsal.
Visual and spatial information are handled by the visuospatial sketchpad. - Central Executive integrates information from the slave systems and long-term memory through the episodic buffer (if included in the model).
- Manipulated information is used for various cognitive tasks like reasoning, problem-solving, and following instructions.
- Information not actively maintained fades away or is potentially transferred to long-term memory through encoding processes.
How does the Single Connection model of memory explain the memory process?
The Single Connection Model proposes that memories are formed through a single connection between specific neurons. The strength of this connection determines the memory’s strength and the likelihood of recall.
How does McLelland’s theory of Parallel Distributed Processing explain the memory process?
Explains how memories can be interconnected and influence each other.
Accounts for how partial cues or similar experiences can trigger memory retrieval.
Simulates some aspects of human memory, like forgetting due to weakened connections or interference from similar memories due to overlapping activation patterns
What are the differences between recognition and recall?
Recognition: Involves identifying something familiar from among multiple choices.
Recall: Involves retrieving information from memory without any prompts or cues.
What are retrieval cues and how do they work?
A clue or prompt that helps trigger a recall of info in LTM.
How retrieval is tested and what is the serial position effect?
Recall is used to test retrieval of LTM without the aid of retrieval cues(free recall). Cued Recall is also used via fill-in-the-blank or mtp choice (recognition).
-The serial position effect is the tendency to retrieve info from the start or end of a list. The primary effect allows recollection of start data while recency effects the end.
How can mood and context affect retrieval?
NAME?
Be able to explain and identify examples of encoding specificity principle.
NAME?
What discoveries were made by Hermann Ebbinghaus?
forgetting curve
How do encoding failure, interference, and decay contribute to forgetting?
-encoding failure is the inability to recall specific info because of insufficient encoding of the specific info into LTM. (pennies)
-Decay theory forgetting is a normal brain process, opposed by the forgetting curve where LTM doesn’t decay over time.
-interference theory competing similar memory takes over another. Retroactive(new) vs Proactive(old)
What is prospective memory and how can it be improved?
Remembering to do something in the future, when rather than WHAT. Improved by retrieval cues such as smartphone apps
What is the difference between repression and suppression and how does each work?
sup is cons
res is uncon
What is the misinformation effect?
memory distortion where existing memories are altered when exposed to misinformation
What is source confusion and how can it distort memories?
occurs when the true source of a memory cant be remembered
What are schemas and scripts, and how can they contribute to memory distortions?
schema: organized clusters of information about particular topics
scripts:Scripts are specific types of schemas that represent a sequence of events in a familiar situation. They act like mental scripts that guide our expectations about how things will unfold.
Both schemas and scripts can contribute to memory distortions in a few ways:
Confirmation Bias: We tend to remember information that confirms our existing schemas and scripts, while forgetting or downplaying contradictory information.
Filling in the Gaps: Schemas can prompt us to fill in missing details in memories, potentially creating false memories.
Telescoping: Scripts can lead to compressing memories from similar events, blurring the lines between specific instances.
How are memories both localized and distributed in the brain?
memories arent localized, though Karl Lashleys research over 30 years removed parts of rat’s cortexes but could still run a maze. years later proved half wrong through bunny they can both be localized and distributed based on the complexity of the memory
Eric kandel
Focus: Cellular mechanisms of memory in Aplysia californica (sea slug).
Experiments: Studied changes in gill withdrawal reflex of the sea slug after sensitization (repeated stimulation).
Key Discovery: Identified specific changes in protein synthesis and gene expression within neurons that underlie memory formation.
Contribution: Pioneered the study of memory at the cellular and molecular level, demonstrating the biological basis of memory.
Karl Lashley
Focus: Neural basis of memory in rats.
Experiments: Conducted lesion studies, removing various brain areas in rats and testing their ability to learn and retain maze tasks.
Key Finding: Found no clear localization of memory in the brain. Memory wasn’t stored in a specific brain region but seemed to be distributed.
Contribution: Discredited the idea of a single “memory center” in the brain. His work highlighted the distributed nature of memory storage.
Richard Thompson
Focus: Classical conditioning and memory in rabbits.
Experiments: Developed the Rabbit Eyelid Conditioning paradigm, where rabbits learn to blink in response to a tone paired with an air puff to the eye.
Key Discovery: Demonstrated different memory systems. Hippocampus was crucial for explicit or declarative memory (conscious recollection of the conditioning), while the cerebellum played a role in implicit or non-declarative memory (unconscious expression of the conditioned response).
Contribution: Provided evidence for multiple memory systems with distinct functions in the brain.
Who was H.M. and what did his case reveal about normal memory processes?
HM suffered seizures so severe pieces of his temporal lobe, hippocampus, and amygdala was removed. While reducing the seizures he could no longer form new memories.
-suggesting that hippo was not involved because he could recall info if it was rehearsed but involved in LTM in encoding, and transferring from STM to LTM
What brain structures are involved in normal memory?
Cerebellum: classical conditioning, simple reflexes, procedural/ motor memories
Hippocampus: encodes and transfers new explicit memory to LTM
Amygdala: encodes and stores emotional aspects of memory
prefrontal cortex: aids in working memory by focusing on relevant info
Medial temporal lobe: encodes complex memories by forming links among info in multiple brain regions
What are dementia and Alzheimer’s disease?
Dementia is a progressive deterioration and impairment of memory, reasoning, language and other cognitive functioning as a result of result of disease, injury or substance abuse
Alzheimers Disease: a progressive disease that destroys the brains neurons, gradually impairing memory, thinking, language. Most common cause of dimentia.
What are some of the basic characteristics of mental images?
representation of objects or events that are physically present. manipulation and memory.
How do we manipulate mental images?
physical manipulation like rotation. They are similar to memory which are subject to error
Nancy Kanwisher
Focus: Neural correlates of object recognition in the human brain using fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging).
Key Finding: Identified the fusiform gyrus, a region in the temporal lobe, as crucial for object recognition. This brain area becomes
more active when people see objects or perceive them mentally.
Contribution: Advanced our understanding of the neural basis of visual perception and its connection to mental imagery. Kanwisher’s work suggests that mental imagery activates similar brain regions as real visual perception.
Stephen Kosslyn
Focus: Mental imagery and its role in visual perception, cognition, and memory.
Development of Mental Imagery Scanning Techniques: Kosslyn proposed methods like mental scanning, where participants scan a mental image as if moving their attention across it. He argued that these techniques could provide insights into the processes underlying mental imagery.
Contribution: Provided evidence for the overlap between visual processing and mental imagery. Kosslyn’s work helped establish mental imagery as a valuable tool for cognitive research.
-The results supported Kosslyn’s hypothesis. Participants took longer to mentally “scan” across longer distances within their visualized images than shorter distances, suggesting that mental imagery is spatially organized and operates in a similar manner to seeing actual spatial distances.
Beatrice & Daniel Wohlschläger:
Focus: Mental rotation, a specific type of mental imagery manipulation where participants imagine an object rotating in their mind.
Experiments: Used reaction time and brain imaging techniques to study mental rotation. Their work suggests that mental rotation involves spatial processing mechanisms in the parietal lobe of the brain.
Contribution: Provided insights into the cognitive processes underlying mental imagery manipulation. Their research on mental rotation demonstrates how we can manipulate specific aspects of mental images.
What are concepts and how are they formed? What are the different types of concepts?
mental catagory of objects or ideas based on properties they share. By learning the rule or feature that defines a concept that are logical but rigid (define attributes)
What are prototypes and exemplars and how are they used?
prototype: the most typical instance of a particular concept
exemplars: individual instances of a concept or category held in memory
-How We Use Them: When encountering a new object, we compare it to the exemplars we have stored in memory. If the new object shares enough features with a stored exemplar, we categorize it within that category.
ADV and DISADV of each problem solving strat
trial and error: useful for limited solution issues like developing a curry recipe
Algorithm: usually math formula. takes sometimes very long to reach a solution but always produces one.
Heuristic: uses the rule of thumb to find a solution, reduces the number of possible solutions. No guarentee
How can functional fixedness and mental set interfere with problem solving?
functional fixedness: TENDENCY TO ONLY VEIW objects in their visual customary way. Prevents from seeing full range of ways an object can be used.
Mental Set: tendency to persist with solutions that have worked in the past. Will not see other possible solutions. Blocks insight in already knowledgeable areas.
Be able to determine if availability or representative heuristic is being used in a situation.
Availability Heuristic
Definition: Estimates the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of that event come to mind. If we can think of many examples of something happening, we judge it to be more common than it actually is.
Example: You might think that shark attacks are a more common cause of death than car accidents because you hear more about shark attacks in the news, even though car accidents are statistically much more frequent.
Representativeness Heuristic:
Definition: Estimates the probability of an event by comparing it to a stereotype or prototype. We judge how likely something is based on how well it matches our existing mental image of a particular category.
Example: You meet someone new who is a lawyer. Because you have a stereotype of lawyers as being wealthy and arrogant, you might assume this person is wealthy and arrogant as well, even though this stereotype isn’t always accurate.
Be able to identify the obstacles identified in this section as they relate to maintaining unwanted beliefs.
Belief Bias Effects: people only accept evidence that conforms to their beliefs
Confirmation Bias: the tendency to seek evidence that confirms existing beliefs and ignore contradicting evidence
The fallacy of positive instances: tendency to remember uncommon events that seem to confirm our beliefs and forget events that disprove
The overestimation effect: tendency to overestimate the rarity of events
how does syntax play a part in determining how we use language?
Syntax, the set of rules governing sentence structure, plays a crucial role in how we use language. It’s the invisible grammar scaffolding that allows us to create meaningful sentences and express ourselves clearly.
The Whorfian Hypothesis
the idea that the language a person speaks influences their worldview or cognition, and therefore their perceptions of the world.
Linguistic Relativity Principle
the particular language we speak influences the way we think about reality
Why arent Ben Whorf’s ideas not supported today?
Limited evidence: Some studies haven’t found a strong causal link between language structure and thought patterns. People seem to be able to think outside the constraints of their language.
Reverse causality: It’s possible that the way people perceive the world influences the development of their language, rather than the other way around.
Oversimplification: The relationship between language and thought is likely more complex than a simple cause-and-effect scenario. Cultural factors and personal experiences also play a role in shaping cognition.
What has research found out about the cognitive abilities of nonhuman animals?
Research has found that nonhuman animals, including chimpanzees, bonobos, dolphins, honeyguides, Western scrub jays, owls, pigeons, and dogs, possess a variety of cognitive abilities. These include the ability to communicate complex information, remember past events, plan for the future, and understand language-like systems. While they may not exhibit all aspects of human-like cognition, such as understanding of human emergencies, they demonstrate impressive cognitive skills that challenge the notion of human exceptionalism.
zcore
A z-score, also known as a standard score, measures how many standard deviations a data point is from the mean of a dataset. It is calculated by subtracting the mean from the data point and then dividing the result by the standard deviation. Z-scores allow for comparisons between data points from different distributions by standardizing them to a common scale.
t test
A t-test is a statistical test used to compare the means of two groups to determine if they are significantly different from each other. It evaluates whether the differences observed in sample data are likely to exist in the larger population from which the samples were drawn.
type I and II errors
A Type I error occurs when a true null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected, leading to a false positive result. A Type II error happens when a false null hypothesis is not rejected, resulting in a false negative outcome
signal detection theory
Signal detection theory (SDT) is a framework used to understand how individuals distinguish between signal (important stimuli) and noise (irrelevant stimuli) in the presence of uncertainty. It examines the ability to make decisions under conditions of uncertainty, considering factors like sensitivity (ability to detect the signal) and criterion (threshold for deciding if a signal is present).
orthonasal vs retronasal olfaction
Orthonasal olfaction refers to the perception of odors through the nostrils during inhalation, which is the primary way we detect environmental scents. Retronasal olfaction occurs when odorants from food or drink reach the olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity through the pharynx during eating or drinking, significantly contributing to the flavor perception of foods and beverages.
gate-control theory
The gate-control theory of olfaction posits that the perception of smells is modulated by neural mechanisms in the brain that act like gates, controlling the intensity and quality of olfactory signals. These gates can be influenced by various factors such as attention, emotion, and prior experiences, which can enhance or diminish the perception of certain odors.
